Gender und Arbeitsmarkt
Die IAB-Infoplattform "Gender und Arbeitsmarkt" bietet wissenschaftliche und politiknahe Veröffentlichungen zu den Themen Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen und Männern, Müttern und Vätern, Berufsrückkehrenden, Betreuung/Pflege und Arbeitsteilung in der Familie, Work-Life-Management, Determinanten der Erwerbsbeteiligung, geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede, familien- und steuerpolitische Regelungen sowie Arbeitsmarktpolitik für Frauen und Männer.
Zurück zur Übersicht- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern
- Kinderbetreuung und Pflege
- Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation
- Berufsrückkehrende – Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt
- Dual-Career-Couples
- Work-Life
- Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede
- Familienpolitische Rahmenbedingungen
- Aktive/aktivierende Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- Arbeitslosigkeit und passive Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- geografischer Bezug
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Literaturhinweis
The gender pay gap—What's the problem represented to be? Analyzing the discourses of Estonian employers, employees, and state officials on pay equality (2024)
Zitatform
Aavik, Kadri, Pille Ubakivi-Hadachi, Maaris Raudsepp & Triin Roosalu (2024): The gender pay gap—What's the problem represented to be? Analyzing the discourses of Estonian employers, employees, and state officials on pay equality. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 31, H. 1, S. 171-191. DOI:10.1111/gwao.13061
Abstract
"The gender pay gap (GPG) remains significant in most countries and is a key indicator of gender inequality in society. Qualitative research on the GPG is scarce, yet, qualitative perspectives on the GPG are valuable as the ways in which the GPG is understood and talked about shape actions to tackle it. This article focuses on how the GPG is represented in the context of work and organizations, inspired by the “What's the Problem Represented to be?” approach, developed by Carol Bacchi. The analysis draws on qualitative data—63 interviews with employers, employees, and state officials—collected in Estonia which exhibits one of the largest GPGs in the European Union. Five dominant representations of the GPG were identified: the GPG as (a) consciously produced by employers, (b) different pay for the same work, (c) unmeasurable due to “unique” and “incomparable” jobs and workers, (d) produced by women's failure to ask for fair pay, and (e) impossible for employers to reduce because of market forces. Collectively, these representations render the GPG inevitable, downplaying its emergence as a result of specific gendered social practices. This has implications for the employers' and the state's willingness and strategies to reduce the GPG." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
An analysis of the gender layoff gap implied by a gender gap in wage bargaining (2024)
Zitatform
Abrahams, Scott (2024): An analysis of the gender layoff gap implied by a gender gap in wage bargaining. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 234. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111505
Abstract
"The assumption that wage bargaining power is greater for men than for women yields a novel, mechanical implication regarding the gender wage gap: there should also be a gender layoff gap. If women with the same marginal product of labor as men exercise less bargaining power and consequently earn lower wages, then female workers should on average be more profitable for a firm. When conditions reduce labor demand, the firm should therefore prefer to lay off its male workers first. I show that this is consistent with the data for the United States from 1982–2019. A calibration exercise based on the gender gap in layoff rates suggests that the female bargaining share has risen from 14% lower to 6% lower than the male share over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Decomposing gender wage gaps: a family economics perspective (2024)
Averkamp, Dorothée; Bredemeier, Christian; Juessen, Falko;Zitatform
Averkamp, Dorothée, Christian Bredemeier & Falko Juessen (2024): Decomposing gender wage gaps: a family economics perspective. In: The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, Jg. 126, H. 1, S. 3-37. DOI:10.1111/sjoe.12542
Abstract
"We propose a simple way to embed family-economics arguments for pay differences between genders into standard decomposition techniques. To account appropriately for the role of the family in the determination of wages, one has to compare men and women with similar own characteristics – and with similar partners. In US survey data, we find that our extended decomposition explains considerably more of the wage gap than a standard approach, in line with our theory that highlights the role of career prioritization in dual-earner couples." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Birth Spacing and Working Mothers' Within-Organization Career Paths (2024)
Zitatform
Carlson, Lisa, Karen Benjamin Guzzo & Hsueh-Sheng Wu (2024): Birth Spacing and Working Mothers' Within-Organization Career Paths. In: Socius, Jg. 10. DOI:10.1177/23780231241230845
Abstract
"The mechanisms behind mothers’ wage penalties remain unclear. In this article, the authors consider the role of birth spacing and changes in employers after a second birth. Using the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and competing risk event history models, the authors investigate how spacing between first and second births influences the likelihood of returning to a pre–second birth employer, changing employers, or remaining outside of the labor force within six months of the second birth. The authors find no differences in the influence of birth spacing on the likelihood of returning to an employer versus changing employers but that shorter birth spacings relate to lower likelihoods of returning to the labor market. There is some evidence that birth spacing and postbirth employment varies by age at first birth, marital status, and occupation. Overall, the results suggest that although birth spacing is relevant for returning postbirth to employment, job changes are unlikely to drive mothers’ wage penalties." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
What Firms Do: Gender Inequality in Linked Employer-Employee Data (2024)
Zitatform
Casarico, Alessandra & Salvatore Lattanzio (2024): What Firms Do: Gender Inequality in Linked Employer-Employee Data. In: Journal of labor economics, Jg. 42, H. 2, S. 325-355. DOI:10.1086/723177
Abstract
"We study the extent to which employer heterogeneity affects gender gaps in earnings across the distribution, over time, and over the life cycle, accounting for cohort effects. Using a linked employer-employee dataset for Italy, we show that the gender gap in firm pay premia explains 34 percent of the mean gender pay gap, mainly due to between-firm components. Within-firm differences are more important at the top of the distribution, and have become more relevant over time. Gender differences in mobility towards firms with higher pay premia and within-firm gender inequality partly explain the gender gap in firm pay premia" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Egalitarian penalty or reward? A longitudinal study of adolescent gender attitudes and adulthood income (2024)
Zitatform
Chiang, Yi-Lin & Ran Liu (2024): Egalitarian penalty or reward? A longitudinal study of adolescent gender attitudes and adulthood income. In: Social science research, Jg. 119. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103000
Abstract
"Studies often attribute the persistent gender pay gap to different labor force experiences between men and women. Yet, attitudes formed in earlier life stages also critically shape individual outcomes. Using longitudinal data from Taiwan, this study examines whether and how adolescents’ gender attitudes are related to income in young adulthood. We test two pathways that mediate this relationship at different time points: the attitude continuity pathway from adolescence to young adulthood, hypothesized by the path-dependence theory, and the occupational pathway during young adulthood, hypothesized by the gender socialization perspective. The findings show that girls with egalitarian attitudes are rewarded, as both pathways facilitate higher income in adulthood. However, boys with egalitarian attitudes are simultaneously rewarded and penalized based on different occupational characteristics, resulting in an overall null effect. This study highlights the importance of adolescent gender attitudes and the differential consequences for men and women in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Der Equal Pay Day unter der Lupe: Die Lohnlücke zwischen Männern und Frauen unterscheidet sich je nach Region erheblich (2024)
Zitatform
Collischon, Matthias & Florian Zimmermann (2024): Der Equal Pay Day unter der Lupe: Die Lohnlücke zwischen Männern und Frauen unterscheidet sich je nach Region erheblich. In: IAB-Forum H. 04.03.2024. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20240304.01
Abstract
"Am 6. März ist der deutsche Equal Pay Day. Er zeigt an, wie viele Tage Frauen im Durchschnitt zusätzlich arbeiten müssten, um das durchschnittliche Gehalt von Männern zu erreichen. Bei genauerer Betrachtung werden jedoch erhebliche regionale Unterschiede deutlich. So wäre der Equal Pay Day in Sachsen-Anhalt rechnerisch bereits am 13. Januar gewesen, in Baden-Württemberg wäre er jedoch erst am 8. April." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
Weiterführende Informationen
- c. IAB-Kurzbericht 04/2024: Räumliche Mobilität der Beschäftigten in Deutschland: Frauen pendeln kürzer als Männer
- a. Aktuelle Daten und Indikatoren: Regionale Unterschiede im Gender Pay Gap in Deutschland 2022
- IAB-Forum-Interview: Regionaler Gender Pay Gap: Die Branchenstruktur vor Ort macht den Unterschied
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Literaturhinweis
Goldin's Last Chapter on the Gender Pay Gap: An Exploratory Analysis Using Italian Data (2024)
Zitatform
Destefanis, Sergio, Fernanda Mazzotta & Lavinia Parisi (2024): Goldin's Last Chapter on the Gender Pay Gap: An Exploratory Analysis Using Italian Data. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 38, H. 2, S. 549-572. DOI:10.1177/09500170221143724
Abstract
"This article explores the application to Italy of Goldin’s hypothesis that the unexplained gender pay gap is crucially linked to firms’ incentive to disproportionately reward individuals who work long and particular hours. The study draws mainly on Italian responses to the 2014 European Structure of Earnings Survey for data on earnings and the individual characteristics of employees and their employer, but also uses data from the Occupational Information Network and the Italian Sample Survey on Professions to measure characteristics reflecting the work context within occupations. For graduate and non-graduate workers, the results reveal a positive relationship between various measures of the unexplained gender pay gap and the elasticity of earnings with respect to work hours. For graduate workers, in accordance with Goldin’s hypothesis, both these variables are correlated with the occupational characteristics that impose earnings penalties on workers seeking more workplace flexibility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender earnings gap in Canadian economics departments (2024)
Zitatform
Dilmaghani, Maryam & Min Hu (2024): Gender earnings gap in Canadian economics departments. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 31, H. 11, S. 1059-1066. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2023.2174494
Abstract
"The status of women in economics is increasingly researched. However, the gender earnings gap among economics faculty is rarely examined due to data limitations. Relying on Canadian Public Sector Salary Disclosure lists, we construct a unique dataset of earnings, credentials, and research productivity of economics faculty members. We find a ceteris paribus gender earnings gap, which is driven by full professors." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Characteristics or Returns: Understanding Gender Pay Inequality among College Graduates in the USA (2024)
Zitatform
Dressel, Joanna, Paul Attewell, Liza Reisel & Kjersti Misje Østbakken (2024): Characteristics or Returns: Understanding Gender Pay Inequality among College Graduates in the USA. In: Work, Employment and Society online erschienen am 28.04.2024. DOI:10.1177/09500170241245329
Abstract
"Explanations for the persistent pay disparity between similarly qualified men and women vary between women’s different and devalued work characteristics and specific processes that result in unequal wage returns to the same characteristics. This article investigates how the gender wage gap is affected by gender differences in detailed work activities among full-time, year-round, college-graduate workers in the US using decomposition analysis in the National Survey of College Graduates. Differences in men’s and women’s characteristics account for a majority of the gender wage gap. Additionally, men and women receive different returns to several characteristics: occupational composition, marriage and work activities. While men are penalized more than women for having teaching as their primary work activity, women receive lower rewards for primary work activities such as finance and computer programming. The findings suggest that even with men and women becoming more similar on several characteristics, unequal returns to those characteristics will stall progress towards equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Male and female selection effects on gender wage gaps in three countries (2024)
Elass, Kenza;Zitatform
Elass, Kenza (2024): Male and female selection effects on gender wage gaps in three countries. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 87. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2024.102506
Abstract
"A vast literature on gender wage gaps has examined the importance of selection into employment. However, most analyses have focused only on female labor force participation and gaps at the median. The Great Recession questions this approach because of the major shift in male employment that it implied. This paper uses the methodology proposed by Arellano and Bonhomme (2017) to estimate a quantile selection model over the period 2007–2018. Using a tax and benefit microsimulation model, I compute an instrument capturing both male and female decisions to participate in the labor market: the potential out-of-work income. Since my instrument is crucially determined by the welfare state, I consider three countries with notably different benefit systems – the UK, France and Finland. My results imply different selection patterns across countries and a sizeable male selection in France and the UK. Correction for selection bias lowers the gender wage gap and reveals a substantial glass ceiling with different magnitudes. Findings suggest that disparities between these countries are driven by occupational segregation and public spending on families." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Unterschiede in den Jahresverdiensten zwischen Männern und Frauen: Der Gender Pay Gap wurde in der Coronakrise kleiner - außer bei niedrigen Verdiensten (2024)
Zitatform
Fitzenberger, Bernd, Anna Houštecká & Alexander Patt (2024): Unterschiede in den Jahresverdiensten zwischen Männern und Frauen: Der Gender Pay Gap wurde in der Coronakrise kleiner - außer bei niedrigen Verdiensten. (IAB-Kurzbericht 01/2024), Nürnberg, 8 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.KB.2401
Abstract
"Die Geschlechterunterschiede in den Jahresverdiensten (Gender Pay Gap) spiegeln Unterschiede sowohl im Stundenlohn als auch in der Arbeitszeit und der Beschäftigungswahrscheinlichkeit wider. Je nach Verdienstniveau vor der Coronakrise waren Männer und Frauen von der Krise unterschiedlich betroffen: Während die Frauen mit mittleren und hohen Jahresverdiensten im Vergleich zu den Männern zwischen 2019 und 2021 aufholten, erfuhren die Frauen mit den niedrigsten Verdiensten deutlich stärkere Verluste als die Männer. In dem Kurzbericht wird untersucht, wie sich die Coronakrise auf die Jahresverdienste der Frauen und Männer insgesamt ausgewirkt hat und wie sich der Gender Pay Gap je nach Höhe der Verdienste und nach Beschäftigungsform (Vollzeit, Teilzeit, Minijob) entwickelt hat. Außerdem werden Übergangsraten zwischen den verschiedenen Beschäftigungsformen betrachtet." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
Weiterführende Informationen
- Veränderung des Gender Pay Gaps über die Verdienstverteilung hinweg getrennt nach Beschäftigten in Vollzeit, Teilzeit und Minijobs
- Veränderung der Jahresverdienste nach Dezilen und Geschlecht
- Veränderung des Gender Pay Gaps über die Verdienstverteilung hinweg
- Veränderung der Verbleibsrate in Vollzeit- und Teilzeitbeschäftigung über zwei Jahre
- Veränderung der Übergangsrate von Vollzeit- und Teilzeitbeschäftigten in Nichtbeschäftigung über zwei Jahre
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Literaturhinweis
Regionale Unterschiede im Gender Pay Gap in Deutschland 2022 (2024)
Zitatform
Fuchs, Michaela, Anja Rossen & Antje Weyh (2024): Regionale Unterschiede im Gender Pay Gap in Deutschland 2022. (Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung. Aktuelle Daten und Indikatoren), Nürnberg, 18 S.
Abstract
"Dass Frauen in Deutschland weniger verdienen als Männer, gilt gemeinhin als bekannt. Die nationale Betrachtung verdeckt jedoch große Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Regionen. Im Folgenden zeigen wir diese regionalen Unterschiede im so genannten Gender Pay Gap (GPG) auf. Datengrundlage bildet hierbei der nominale Lohn (brutto), den sozialversicherungspflichtig Vollzeitbeschäftigte zum Stichtag 30.06.2022 in einer bestimmten Region verdient haben. Dass Frauen häufiger in Teilzeit arbeiten als Männer, ist also für diese Kennziffer irrelevant." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
Weiterführende Informationen
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Literaturhinweis
Pay transparency intervention and the gender pay gap: Evidence from research-intensive universities in the UK (2024)
Zitatform
Gamage, Danula K., Georgios Kavetsos, Sushanta Mallick & Almudena Sevilla (2024): Pay transparency intervention and the gender pay gap: Evidence from research-intensive universities in the UK. In: BJIR, Jg. 62, H. 2, S. 293-318. DOI:10.1111/bjir.12778
Abstract
"This study investigates the impact of a pay transparency intervention in reducing the gender pay gap in the UK university sector. Introduced in 2007, the initiative enabled public access to average annual earnings disaggregated by gender in UK universities. We use a detailed matched employee-employer administrative dataset that follows individuals over time, allowing us to adopt a quasi-experimental approach based on event studies around the intervention. We find that the earnings of female academics increased by around 0.62 percentage points compared to their male counterparts as the control group, whose earnings remained constant after the pay transparency intervention, reducing the gender pay gap by 4.37 per cent. Further evidence suggests that the main mechanism for the fall in the pay gap is driven by female employees negotiating higher wages, particularly among senior female academics." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Gender Gap in Earnings Losses After Job Displacement (2024)
Zitatform
Illing, Hannah, Johannes F. Schmieder & Simon Trenkle (2024): The Gender Gap in Earnings Losses After Job Displacement. In: Journal of the European Economic Association online erschienen am 13.03.2024, S. 1-41. DOI:10.1093/jeea/jvae019
Abstract
"We compare men and women who are displaced from similar jobs by applying an event study design combined with propensity score matching and reweighting to administrative data from Germany. After a mass layoff, women’ s earnings losses are about 35% higher than men’ s, with the gap persisting five years after displacement. This is partly explained by women taking up more part-time employment, but even women’ s full-time wage losses are almost 50% higher than men’ s. Parenthood magnifies the gender gap sharply. Finally, displaced women spend less time on job search and apply for lower-paid jobs, highlighting the importance of labor supply decisions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Oxford Academic) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Regionaler Gender Pay Gap: Die Branchenstruktur vor Ort macht den Unterschied (Interview) (2024)
Zitatform
Keitel, Christiane; Michaela Fuchs & Anja Rossen (interviewte Person) (2024): Regionaler Gender Pay Gap: Die Branchenstruktur vor Ort macht den Unterschied (Interview). In: IAB-Forum H. 04.03.2024. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20240304.02
Abstract
"Dass Frauen in Deutschland im Schnitt deutlich weniger verdienen als Männer, ist den meisten Menschen bewusst. Die nationale Betrachtung verdeckt jedoch große Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Regionen. Anlässlich des deutschlandweiten Equal Pay Days, der 2024 auf den 6. März fällt, haben Regionalforscherinnen aus dem IAB einen Bericht vorgelegt, der den Gender Pay Gap auf regionaler Ebene aufzeigt. Die Redaktion des IAB-Forums hat dazu bei Michaela Fuchs und Anja Rossen nachgefragt.." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Gender differences in wage expectations and negotiation (2024)
Kiessling, Lukas; Pinger, Pia; Seegers, Philipp; Bergerhoff, Jan;Zitatform
Kiessling, Lukas, Pia Pinger, Philipp Seegers & Jan Bergerhoff (2024): Gender differences in wage expectations and negotiation. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 87. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2024.102505
Abstract
"This paper presents evidence from a large-scale study on gender differences in expected wages before labor market entry. Based on data for over 15,000 students, we document a significant and large gender gap in wage expectations that resembles actual wage differences, prevails across subgroups, and along the entire distribution. Over the life-cycle this gap amounts to roughly half a million Euros. Our findings further suggest that expected wages relate to expected asking and reservation wages and that a difference in plans about ‘‘boldness’’ during prospective wage negotiations pertains to gender difference in expected and actual wages. Given the importance of wage expectations for labor market decisions, household bargaining, and wage setting, our results provide an explanation for persistent gender inequalities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Child Penalties and the Gender Gap in Home Production and the Labor Market (2024)
Zitatform
Koopmans, Pim, Max van Lent & Jim Been (2024): Child Penalties and the Gender Gap in Home Production and the Labor Market. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16871), Bonn, 30 S.
Abstract
"The consequence of the arrival of children for the gender wage gap - known as the child penalty - is substantial and has been documented for many countries. Little is still known about the impact of having children beyond paid work in the labor market, such as home production. In this paper we estimate - deploying an event study with Dutch survey data - the child penalty in both home production and the labor market. In line with the literature we find no labor market effects for men. For women we find a strong reduction in work hours and lower wages. However, we find an increase in home production for women roughly similar to the decline in paid work. Consequently, time allocated to the labor market plus home production is roughly equal across gender before and after the arrival of children. This result rejects the hypothesis that women substitute paid work for leisure after the arrival of children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does gender of firm ownership matter? Female entrepreneurs and the gender pay gap (2024)
Zitatform
Kritikos, Alexander S., Mika Maliranta, Veera Nippala & Satu Nurmi (2024): Does gender of firm ownership matter? Female entrepreneurs and the gender pay gap. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 1422), Essen, 39 S.
Abstract
"We examine how the gender of business-owners is related to the wages paid to female relative to male employees working in their firms. Using Finnish register data and employing firm fixed effects, we find that the gender pay gap is - starting from a gender pay gap of 11 to 12 percent - two to three percentage-points lower for hourly wages in female-owned firms than in male-owned firms. Results are robust to how the wage is measured, as well as to various further robustness checks. More importantly, we find substantial differences between industries. While, for instance, in the manufacturing sector, the gender of the owner plays no role for the gender pay gap, in several service sector industries, like ICT or business services, no or a negligible gender pay gap can be found, but only when firms are led by female business owners. Businesses in male ownership maintain a gender pay gap of around 10 percent also in the latter industries. With increasing firm size, the influence of the gender of the owner, however, fades. In large firms, it seems that others - firm managers - determine wages and no differences in the pay gap are observed between male- and female-owned firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Long Way to Gender Equality: Gender Pay Differences in Germany, 1871-2021 (2024)
Neef, Theresa;Zitatform
Neef, Theresa (2024): The Long Way to Gender Equality: Gender Pay Differences in Germany, 1871-2021. (Working paper / World Inequality Lab 04424,48), Paris, 54 S.
Abstract
"This paper provides the first time series of the gender earnings ratio for the full-time employed workforce in Germany since the 1870s and compares Germany's path with the Swedish and U.S. cases. The industrialization period yielded slow advances in economic gender relations due to women's delayed inclusion in the industrial workforce. The first half of the 20th century exhibited a marked leap. In Germany, the gender earnings ratio increased from 47% in 1913 to 58% in 1937. Similar increases are visible in Sweden and the United States. In all three countries, the interplay between increased women's education and increased returns to education due to the expanding white-collar sector fueled pay convergence. Yet in Germany, women's educational catch-up was slowed due to the dominance of on-the-job vocational training. German women's migration from low-paid agricultural work to higher-paid white-collar jobs was predominantly increasing the gender pay ratio. The postwar period brought diverging developments between Germany, Sweden and the United States due to different economic conditions and policy action." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Aspekt auswählen:
Aspekt zurücksetzen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern
- Kinderbetreuung und Pflege
- Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation
- Berufsrückkehrende – Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt
- Dual-Career-Couples
- Work-Life
- Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede
- Familienpolitische Rahmenbedingungen
- Aktive/aktivierende Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- Arbeitslosigkeit und passive Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- geografischer Bezug