Gender und Arbeitsmarkt
Das Themendossier "Gender und Arbeitsmarkt" bietet wissenschaftliche und politiknahe Veröffentlichungen zu den Themen Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen und Männern, Müttern und Vätern, Berufsrückkehrenden, Betreuung/Pflege und Arbeitsteilung in der Familie, Work-Life-Management, Determinanten der Erwerbsbeteiligung, geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede, familien- und steuerpolitische Regelungen sowie Arbeitsmarktpolitik für Frauen und Männer.
Mit dem Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern
- Kinderbetreuung und Pflege
- Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation
- Berufsrückkehr – Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt
- Dual-Career-Couples
- Work-Life
- Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede
- Familienpolitische Rahmenbedingungen
- Aktive/aktivierende Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- Arbeitslosigkeit und passive Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- geografischer Bezug
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Literaturhinweis
Does pay disclosure in job offers remove gender differences in pay estimations? Evidence from an experiment with students and job seekers in the context of Austria (2024)
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Yilmaz, Levent & Julia Brandl (2024): Does pay disclosure in job offers remove gender differences in pay estimations? Evidence from an experiment with students and job seekers in the context of Austria. In: German Journal of Human Resource Management. DOI:10.1177/23970022241240589
Abstract
"Pay disclosure aims at closing the gender pay gap by providing employees especially women with better salary knowledge, yet the effectiveness of employers’ practices is little understood. We use a lab-in-the-field experiment where participants estimate the salaries for several common pay statements for job offers which employers use in the context of the legislation in Austria. Our study with management students ( n = 385) shows that employer practices offer no solution to the problem of gender differences, except for the practice of salary range. The replication of the experiment with the real job seekers ( n = 242) demonstrates that gender differences disappear also for some practices, but not for the practice of mentioning excess payment (or overpay) options, which is common in Austria. This means that legislation addresses the gender gap most effectively when it encourages employers to display the salary range." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Parenthood, earnings, and the relevance of family formation sequences (2024)
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Yu, Wei-hsin & Janet Chen-Lan Kuo (2024): Parenthood, earnings, and the relevance of family formation sequences. In: Social science research, Jg. 121. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103027
Abstract
"Prior research sheds little light on how shifts in family formation trajectories have implications for recent cohorts’ earnings gains and losses with childbearing. Using longitudinal data from a contemporary cohort, we examine how the pay premium or penalty for parents varies by their relationship status at childbirth and subsequent changes in the status. Fixed effects models show that children born to unpartnered women are associated with substantial pay penalties for the mothers. Conversely, women giving birth within cohabiting or marital unions experience small or no motherhood penalties. For residential fathers, only children born after marriage are linked to pay increases. Men having children while cohabiting or unpartnered receive no fatherhood premiums even if they later transition into marriage. Married mothers’ earnings outcomes also depend on their sequence of marriage and childbearing. Whereas women bearing children before marriage encounter a substantial motherhood penalty, those doing so after marriage face none. The variation in parenthood penalties or premiums by childbearing context cannot be entirely elucidated by the differences in the age of entering parenthood, ethnoracial composition, education, or pre-parenthood earnings growth rate among people having children in various contexts. We suggest that the family formation sequence is related to individuals’ expectations and the support they receive for their parental roles, which shape parenthood earnings outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
2024 Report on gender equality in the EU (2024)
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(2024): 2024 Report on gender equality in the EU. (Commission staff working document / European Commission SWD(2024) 54 final), Brüssel, 75 S.
Abstract
"(...) the 2024 report on gender equality in the EU takes stock of the main initiatives from March 2023 until February 2024 to advance gender equality in the Strategy ’s key areas , namely: - Being free from violence and stereotypes; - Thriving in a gender-equal economy; - Leading equally throughout society; - Gender mainstreaming and funding; and - Promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment across the world. The report focuses on the keyactions and achievements of EU institutions in this area. It also provides encouraging examples of legislative and policy developments by Member States (indicated in the boxes), and work by EU-funded projects in the above areas." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Taxing Wages 2024: Tax and Gender through the Lens of the Second Earner (2024)
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(2024): Taxing Wages 2024. Tax and Gender through the Lens of the Second Earner. (Taxing wages / OECD 2024), Paris, 676 S. DOI:10.1787/dbcbac85-en
Abstract
"This annual publication provides details of taxes paid on wages in OECD countries. This year’s edition focuses on fiscal incentives for second earners in the OECD and how tax policy might contribute to gender gaps in labor market outcomes. For the year 2023, the report also examines personal income taxes and social security contributions paid by employees, social security contributions and payroll taxes paid by employers, and cash benefits received by workers. It illustrates how these taxes and benefits are calculated in each member country and examines how they impact household incomes. The results also enable quantitative cross-country comparisons of labor cost levels and the overall tax and benefit position of single persons and families on different levels of earnings. The publication shows average and marginal effective tax rates on labor costs for eight different household types, which vary by income level and household composition (single persons, single parents, one or two earner couples with or without children). The average tax rates measure the part of gross wage earnings or labour costs taken in tax and social security contributions, both before and after cash benefits, and the marginal tax rates the part of a small increase of gross earnings or labour costs that is paid in these levies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender differences in fairness evaluations of own earnings in 28 European countries (2023)
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Adriaans, Jule & Matteo Targa (2023): Gender differences in fairness evaluations of own earnings in 28 European countries. In: European Societies, Jg. 25, H. 1, S. 107-131. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2022.2083651
Abstract
"Women tend to evaluate their own pay more favorably than men. Contented women are speculated to not seek higher wages, thus the ‘paradox of the contented female worker’ may contribute to persistent gender pay differences. We extend the literature on gender differences in pay evaluations by investigating fairness evaluations of own earnings and underlying conceptions of fair earnings, providing a closer link to potential subsequent wage demands than previous literature. Using European Social Survey (2018/2019) data, we find no evidence that women evaluate their own earnings more favorably than men. In 15 out of the 28 analyzed countries, women actually report more intense levels of perceived unfairness. Studying fair markups on unfair earnings, i.e. the relative distance between the earnings received and earnings considered fair, we find that women report the same, if not lower, fair markups compared to men in most countries; thus indicating limited potential for perceived unfairness as a driving force to reduce the gender pay gap in Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Gender Wage Gap and Parenthood: Occupational Characteristics Across European Countries (2023)
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Adsera, Alícia & Federica Querin (2023): The Gender Wage Gap and Parenthood: Occupational Characteristics Across European Countries. In: European Journal of Population, Jg. 39. DOI:10.1007/s10680-023-09681-4
Abstract
"Different strands of research analyse gender occupational differences and how they relate to differential earnings, especially among parents juggling family demands. We use rich data from PIAAC across a subset of European countries and match occupational characteristics to individuals’ jobs using the O*NET database to analyse, first, whether there are gender differences in the occupational characteristics of jobs, particularly among parents, and second, whether the return to key occupational characteristics varies by gender. Compared to men, women’s jobs generally require more contact with others, less autonomy in decision-making, and less time pressure. In addition, positions held by mothers involve both less leadership expectations and less intensive use of machines than those held by fathers. Further, mothers receive a lower return to both of these occupational characteristics than fathers do. Finally, even though gaps in occupational characteristics such as leadership jointly with the differential sorting of mothers and fathers across sectors explain part of the gender wage gap in Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition models, especially in Continental Europe, a large share remains unexplained particularly in Eastern and Southern European countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Closing the Gender Gap in Salary Increases: Evidence from a Field Experiment on Promoting Pay Equity (2023)
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Alfitian, Jakob, Marvin Deversi & Dirk Sliwka (2023): Closing the Gender Gap in Salary Increases: Evidence from a Field Experiment on Promoting Pay Equity. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16278), Bonn, 23 S.
Abstract
"We present a natural field experiment on promoting pay equity through simple modifications to the salary review process involving 623 middle managers and 8,951 subordinate employees of a large technology firm. We first document a gender gap not only in salary levels but also in salary increases. Our treatments provide for a gender-blind reallocation of the salary increase budget available to middle managers aimed at promoting pay equity, along with different variants of a corresponding decision guidance. We show that the budget reallocation combined with an explicit decision guidance, while still leaving middle managers discretion in allocating the budget, can completely eliminate the gender gap in salary increases. The treatments also do not appear to undermine the desired performance differentiation in salary increases. We thus show that simple modifications to the salary review process can go a long way toward achieving pay equity by preventing gender gaps from widening throughout employees' careers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Promoting gender equality to strengthen economic growth and resilience (2023)
Andre, Christophe; Causa, Orsetta; Unsal, Filiz; Sutherland, Douglas; Soldani, Emilia;Zitatform
Andre, Christophe, Orsetta Causa, Emilia Soldani, Douglas Sutherland & Filiz Unsal (2023): Promoting gender equality to strengthen economic growth and resilience. (OECD Economics Department working papers 1776), Paris, 23 S. DOI:10.1787/54090c29-en
Abstract
"Women's employment rates and wages are still lagging those of men across OECD countries, with average employment and wage gaps now around 15% and 12% respectively. Gaps narrowed at a relatively modest pace over the past decade, calling for further policy action. A lack of affordable high-quality childcare is often an obstacle to women's participation in the labor market and notably to working full time. A very unequal sharing of parental leave between parents and challenges upon return to work further hampers women's careers. Biases in the tax system may discourage women from working in some countries. Women face disadvantage in accessing management positions and entrepreneurship. A range of policies can help reduce gender gaps, including better childcare provision, incentivizing parents to better share parental leave, re-skilling and upskilling on return from parental leave, encouraging gender equality within firms, integration programs for foreign-born women, promoting women entrepreneurship and financial inclusion, and levelling taxation for second earners. Moreover, the multiple dimensions and root causes of gender inequality call for mainstreaming gender across policy domains." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Civil rights experiments versus enrichment experiments in wage gap analysis (2023)
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Asali, Muhammad (2023): Civil rights experiments versus enrichment experiments in wage gap analysis. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 30, H. 10, S. 1395-1399. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2022.2056124
Abstract
"The choice of the non-discriminatory vector of returns in Oaxaca-Blinder wage gap decompositions affects the results. Rather than being arbitrary, that choice should depend on the nature of the intended policy to address wage differentials in the labour market. The effectiveness of policies at the extensive margin, such as those offering greater access to higher education, is better estimated by the explained part of the wage gap, when choosing the lower-wage group’s vector of returns as non-discriminatory (the ‘enrichment experiment’). Alternatively, the effectiveness of affirmative action policies is better estimated by the unexplained part of the wage gap, when choosing the higher-wage group’s vector of returns as non-discriminatory (the ‘civil rights experiment’). We provide an example of applying this methodology for ethnic and gender wage differentials in the Georgian labour market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
How the 1963 Equal Pay Act and 1964 Civil Rights Act Shaped the Gender Gap in Pay (2023)
Bailey, Martha J.; Helgerman, Thomas E.; Stuart, Bryan A.;Zitatform
Bailey, Martha J., Thomas E. Helgerman & Bryan A. Stuart (2023): How the 1963 Equal Pay Act and 1964 Civil Rights Act Shaped the Gender Gap in Pay. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 31332), Cambridge, Mass, 44 S.
Abstract
"In the 1960s, two landmark statutes—the Equal Pay and Civil Rights Acts—targeted the long-standing practice of employment discrimination against U.S. women. For the next 15 years, the gender gap in median earnings among full-time, full-year workers changed little, leading many scholars and advocates to conclude the legislation was ineffectual. This paper uses two different research designs to show that women's relative wages grew rapidly in the aftermath of this legislation. The data show little evidence of short-term changes in women's employment, but some results suggest that firms reduced their hiring and promotion of women in the medium term." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Persistence of the Gender Earnings Gap: Cohort Trends and the Role of Education in Twelve Countries (2023)
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Bar-Haim, Eyal, Louis Chauvel, Janet Gornick & Anne Hartung (2023): The Persistence of the Gender Earnings Gap: Cohort Trends and the Role of Education in Twelve Countries. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 165, H. 3, S. 821-841. DOI:10.1007/s11205-022-03029-x
Abstract
"Studying twelve countries over 30 years, we examine whether women's educational expansion has translated into a narrowing of the gender gap in earnings when including persons with zero earnings. As educational attainment is cohort-dependent, an Age-Period-Cohort analysis is most appropriate in our view. Using the micro data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database, we show that while, in terms of attainment of tertiary education, women have caught up and often even outperform men, substantial gender differences in our earnings measure persist in all countries. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method in an innovative age-period-cohort approach, we demonstrate that the role of education in explaining gender earnings differences has been limited and even decreased over cohorts. We also conclude that, when including persons not receiving earnings, earnings differences at levels far from gender equality will likely persist in the future, even if the “rise of women” in terms of education continues—as the share of women in higher education increases and the returns to education in particular for women declines." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Motherhood Wage and Income Traps (2023)
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Barigozzi, Francesca, Helmuth Cremer & Emmanuel Thibault (2023): The Motherhood Wage and Income Traps. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16072), Bonn, 38 S.
Abstract
"We present a simple dynamic model based on on-the-job human capital accumulation affecting the dynamic of wage rates and labor earnings. We show how these dynamics are determined by the interplay between the supply and demand sides of the labor market. The model can generate and explain the different dynamics of women's earnings after childbirth documented in the empirical literature on child penalties. We show that the temporary negative shock in labor supply due to childbearing may create a wage trap and a permanent divergence of labor earnings between genders. Even when the wage trap is avoided, and working mothers are on a path toward a high-wage equilibrium, slow convergence can permanently lose earnings. We use this model to study the impact of different policies on the gender wage gap and child penalties. We show that mandatory maternal leave exacerbates the shock which pleads against long leaves. Similarly, cash transfers to mothers via the income effect on labor supply aggravate gender wage differences. By contrast, temporary subsidies to mothers' wages (possibly in the form of Income Tax Credits) are not only useful to exit the wage trap, but also to speed up recovery and reduce the child penalty when the shock in labor supply is small enough to avoid the wage trap. Other family policies, like formal child-care subsidies and in-kind provision of formal childcare, are potentially useful because they reduce the mothers' cost of labor supply, but they affect mothers' choices only indirectly." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Overconfidence and Gender Equality in the Labor Market (2023)
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Bastani, Spencer, Thomas Giebe & Oliver Gurtler (2023): Overconfidence and Gender Equality in the Labor Market. (ECONtribute discussion paper 220), Köln ; Bonn, 46 S.
Abstract
"Using a promotion signaling model in which wages are realistically shaped by market forces, we analyze how male overconfidence combined with competitive workplace incentives affects gender equality in the labor market. Our main result is that overconfident workers exert more effort to be promoted, which translates into a higher probability of promotion and superior wage growth. Interestingly, workers who are not overconfident have higher expected ability conditional on promotion than overconfident workers. However, overconfident workers accumulate more human capital through learning-by-doing and therefore have higher expected productivity. Because overconfident workers compete fiercely, they incur higher effort costs and discourage their colleagues, and we find that overconfidence can be either self-serving or self-defeating for the overconfident worker." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Double qualifications, earnings and gender in Germany (2023)
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Bellmann, Lutz & Stephanie Prümer (2023): Double qualifications, earnings and gender in Germany. In: Bulletin of geography. Socio-economic series H. 62, S. 59-69., 2023-12-29. DOI:10.12775/bgss-2023-0034
Abstract
"Nach dem Abitur sind Schulabgänger in Deutschland frei in der Wahl ihres Berufsweges. Beliebt ist dabei der Erwerb einer Doppelqualifikation, indem zunächst eine Lehre absolviert und anschließend ein Studium abgeschlossen wird. Auf Basis der BIBB/BAuA-Erwerbstätigenbefragung 2018 werden in diesem Beitrag die individuellen Auswirkungen dieser Doppelqualifikationen unter Ausnutzung der umfangreichen Bildungsinformationen in den Daten analysiert. Im Vergleich zu früheren Studien stellen wir fest, dass der Anteil der Männer, die eine Doppelqualifikation erworben haben, um 8 Prozentpunkte gesunken ist, während er bei den Frauen nahezu konstant ist. Außerdem stellen wir einen signifikant negativen Effekt der Doppelqualifikation auf die Löhne von Frauen fest, aber keinen signifikanten Effekt auf die Löhne von Männern. Wir vermuten, dass diese Veränderungen mit der Ungleichheit durch die steigende Zahl von Akademikern und der Zunahme der Einkommensungleichheit zusammenhängt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
The Gender Pay Gap and its Determinants across the Human Capital Distribution (2023)
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Binder, Ariel J., Amanda Eng, Kendall Houghton & Andrew Foote (2023): The Gender Pay Gap and its Determinants across the Human Capital Distribution. (Working papers / U.S. Census Bureau, Center for Economic Studies 2023-31), Washington, DCÐAWashington, DC, 31 S.
Abstract
"This paper leverages a unique linkage between American Community Survey data and postsecondary transcript records to examine how the gender pay gap, and its proximate determinants, varies across the distribution of education credentials in the 15 years following graduation. Although recent literature focuses on career disparities between the highest-educated women and men, we find evidence that the pay gap is smaller at higher education levels. Field-of-degree and occupation effects explain most of the gap among top bachelor's graduates, while labor supply and unobserved channels matter more for less-competitive bachelor's, associate's, and certificate graduates. This heterogeneity in gap levels and mechanisms is especially large in the first decade following graduation. Our results suggest that contemporary early-career gender inequality lacks a unified explanation and requires different policy interventions for different subgroups. More research is needed to understand the larger unexplained gender pay gap among less-educated individuals." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Is the Gender Pay Gap Largest at the Top? (2023)
Zitatform
Binder, Ariel J., Amanda Eng, Kendall Houghton & Andrew Foote (2023): Is the Gender Pay Gap Largest at the Top? (Working papers / U.S. Census Bureau, Center for Economic Studies 2023-61), Washington, DC, 10 S.
Abstract
"No: it is at least as large at bottom percentiles of the earnings distribution. Conditional quantile regressions reveal that while the gap at top percentiles is largest among the most-educated, the gap at bottom percentiles is largest among the least-educated. Gender differences in labor supply create more pay inequality among the least-educated than they do among the most-educated. The pay gap has declined throughout the distribution since 2006, but it declined more for the most-educated women. Current economics-of-gender research focuses heavily on the top end; equal emphasis should be placed on mechanisms driving gender inequality for noncollege-educated workers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Why Did Gender Wage Convergence in the United States Stall? (2023)
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Blair, Peter Q. & Benjamin Posmanick (2023): Why Did Gender Wage Convergence in the United States Stall? (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 30821), Cambridge, Mass, 63 S. DOI:10.3386/w30821
Abstract
"During the 1980s, the wage gap between white women and white men in the US declined by approximately 1 percentage point per year. In the decades since, the rate of gender wage convergence has stalled to less than one-third of its previous value. An outstanding puzzle in economics is "why did gender wage convergence in the US stall?" Using an event study design that exploits the timing of state and federal family-leave policies, we show that the introduction of the policies can explain 94% of the reduction in the rate of gender wage convergence that is unaccounted for after controlling for changes in observable characteristics of workers. If gender wage convergence had continued at the pre-family leave rate, wage parity between white women and white men would have been achieved as early as 2017." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen als: HCEO working paper, 2023,001 -
Literaturhinweis
Biased Wage Expectations and Female Labor Supply (2023)
Blesch, Maximilian; Eisenhauer, Philipp; Ilieva, Boryana; Haan, Peter; Schrenker, Annekatrin ; Weizsäcker, Georg;Zitatform
Blesch, Maximilian, Philipp Eisenhauer, Peter Haan, Boryana Ilieva, Annekatrin Schrenker & Georg Weizsäcker (2023): Biased Wage Expectations and Female Labor Supply. (Discussion paper / Rationality & Competition, CCR TRR 190 411), München ; Berlin, 30 S.
Abstract
"Wage growth occurs almost exclusively in full-time work, whereas it is close to zero in part-time work. German women, when asked to predict their own potential wage outcomes, show severely biased expectations with strong over-optimism about the returns to part-time experience. We estimate a structural life-cycle model to quantify how beliefs influence labor supply, earnings and welfare over the life cycle. The bias increases part-time employment strongly, induces flatter long-run wage profiles, and substantially influences the employment effects of a widely discussed policy reform, the introduction of joint taxation. The most significant impact of the bias appears for college-educated women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Gender Wage Gap, Between-Firm Inequality, and Devaluation: Testing a New Hypothesis in the Service Sector (2023)
Zitatform
Brick, Carmen, Daniel Schneider & Kristen Harknett (2023): The Gender Wage Gap, Between-Firm Inequality, and Devaluation: Testing a New Hypothesis in the Service Sector. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 50, H. 4, S. 539-577. DOI:10.1177/07308884221141072
Abstract
"Unequal sorting of men and women into higher and lower-wage firms contributes significantly to the gender wage gap according to recent analysis of national labor markets. We confirm the importance of this between-firm gender segregation in wages and examine a second outcome of hours using unique employer–employee data from the service sector. We then examine what explains the relationship between firm gender composition and wages. In contrast to prevailing economic explanations that trace between-firm differences in wages to differences in firm surplus, we find evidence consistent with devaluation and potentially a gender-specific use of “low road” employment strategies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Entgelttransparenzgesetz erreicht Ziel nicht (2023)
Zitatform
Brändle, Tobias & Andreas Koch (2023): Entgelttransparenzgesetz erreicht Ziel nicht. In: Wirtschaftsdienst, Jg. 103, H. 12, S. 842-849. DOI:10.2478/wd-2023-0230
Abstract
"Das Entgelttransparenzgesetz soll dazu beitragen, das Gebot des gleichen Entgelts für Frauen und Männer bei gleicher oder gleichwertiger Arbeit durchzusetzen. Nach der zweiten Evaluation wird deutlich, dass dies mit den vorhandenen Instrumenten des Gesetzes nicht erreicht wird. Ohne größere Änderungen bleibt das Gesetz in großen Teilen ineffektiv – bei gleichzeitig substanziellen bürokratischen Auflagen für Betriebe. Der vorliegende Beitrag beschreibt die Ergebnisse der zweiten Evaluation und zeigt auf, in welche Richtung Reformen gehen könnten." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Aspekt zurücksetzen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern
- Kinderbetreuung und Pflege
- Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation
- Berufsrückkehr – Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt
- Dual-Career-Couples
- Work-Life
- Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede
- Familienpolitische Rahmenbedingungen
- Aktive/aktivierende Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- Arbeitslosigkeit und passive Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- geografischer Bezug