Gender und Arbeitsmarkt
Das Themendossier "Gender und Arbeitsmarkt" bietet wissenschaftliche und politiknahe Veröffentlichungen zu den Themen Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen und Männern, Müttern und Vätern, Berufsrückkehrenden, Betreuung/Pflege und Arbeitsteilung in der Familie, Work-Life-Management, Determinanten der Erwerbsbeteiligung, geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede, familien- und steuerpolitische Regelungen sowie Arbeitsmarktpolitik für Frauen und Männer.
Mit dem Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern
- Kinderbetreuung und Pflege
- Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation
- Berufsrückkehr – Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt
- Dual-Career-Couples
- Work-Life
- Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede
- Familienpolitische Rahmenbedingungen
- Aktive/aktivierende Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- Arbeitslosigkeit und passive Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- geografischer Bezug
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Literaturhinweis
Child care markets, parental labor supply, and child development (2020)
Zitatform
Berlinski, Samuel, Maria Marta Ferreyra, Luca Flabbi & Juan David Martin (2020): Child care markets, parental labor supply, and child development. (IZA discussion paper 12904), Bonn, 46 S.
Abstract
"We develop and estimate a model of child care markets that endogenizes both demand and supply. On the demand side, families with a child make consumption, labor supply, and child-care decisions within a static, unitary household model. On the supply side, child care providers make entry, price, and quality decisions under monopolistic competition. Child development is a function of the time spent with each parent and at the child care center; these inputs vary in their impact. We estimate the structural parameters of the model using the 2003 Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, which contains information on parental employment and wages, child care choices, child development, and center quality. We use our estimates to evaluate the impact of several policies, including vouchers, cash transfers, quality regulations, and public provision. Among these, a combination of quality regulation and vouchers for working families leads to the greatest gains in average child development and to a large expansion in child care use and female labor supply, all at a relatively low fiscal cost." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Hope for the family: The effects of college costs on maternal labor supply (2020)
Zitatform
Braga, Breno & Olga Malkova (2020): Hope for the family: The effects of college costs on maternal labor supply. (IZA discussion paper 12958), Bonn, 56 S.
Abstract
"We examine the effects of college costs on the labor supply of mothers. Exploiting changes in college costs after the roll-out of nine generous state merit aid programs from 1993 to 2004, we analyze the difference in the labor supply of mothers before and after these programs were implemented. Mothers of college-age children decreased their annual hours of work after the start of a generous merit aid program, while fathers did not adjust their labor supply. There is no strong evidence that mothers changed their employment status, as most of the decrease in hours of work happened among employed mothers. Mothers of college-going children are entirely responsible for the decline in hours of work, where mothers of children who did not go to college experienced no change in hours of work. A 10 percent increase in spending on merit aid programs per undergraduate student leads to a 1.3 percent decline in hours of work among mothers of college-going children. The decline in labor supply is mainly due to adjustments among married, highly educated, and white mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Decomposition of the Gender Wage Gap using the LASSO Estimator (2020)
Zitatform
Böheim, René & Philipp Stöllinger (2020): Decomposition of the Gender Wage Gap using the LASSO Estimator. (Institut für Volkswirtschaftslehre Linz. Arbeitspapier 2003), Linz, 25 S.
Abstract
"We use the LASSO estimator to select among a large number of explanatory variables in wage regressions for a decomposition of the gender wage gap. The LASSO selection with a one standard error rule removes about a quarter of the regressors. We use the LASSO-selected regressors for OLSbased gender wage decompositions. This approach results in a smaller error variance than in OLS without LASSO-selection. The explained gender wage gap is 1%-point greater than in the conventional OLS model." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Maximizing benefits and minimizing impacts: Dual-earner couples' perceived division of household labor decision-making process (2020)
Zitatform
Carlson, Matthew W. & Jason D. Hans (2020): Maximizing benefits and minimizing impacts: Dual-earner couples' perceived division of household labor decision-making process. In: Journal of family studies, Jg. 26, H. 2, S. 208-225. DOI:10.1080/13229400.2017.1367712
Abstract
"Researchers have thoroughly documented the various factors that influence couples' division of household labor. Although numerous approaches have been taken to explain these factors that influence the division of household labor, perceptions of the decision-making process of dividing household labor within a marriage is seldom considered and is therefore the focus of this study. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 20 heterosexual, dual-earner couples. Data were analyzed with grounded theory methodology. Findings included that couples viewed themselves as first attempting to divide household labor in ways that they perceived as being the most beneficial for them as a couple. When issues arose with a particular task or arrangement, or with the division of labor more generally, they made adjustments intended to minimize the negative impact of those issues. Findings are contextualized within the major theories surrounding quantitative data on household labor (i.e. time availability, relative resources, and gender ideology perspectives). Implications for family researchers, educators, and practitioners are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender norms, fairness and relative working hours within households (2020)
Zitatform
Flèche, Sarah, Anthony Lepinteur & Nattavudh Powdthavee (2020): Gender norms, fairness and relative working hours within households. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 65. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101866
Abstract
"Using data in the United States, UK and Germany, we show that women whose working hours exceed those of their male partners report lower life satisfaction on average. By contrast, men do not report lower life satisfaction from working more hours than their female partners. An analysis of possible mechanisms shows that in couples where the woman works more hours than the man, women do not spend significantly less time doing household chores. Women with egalitarian ideologies are likely to perceive this unequal division of labour as unfair, ultimately reducing their life satisfaction." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2020 Elsevier) ((en))
Weiterführende Informationen
Post print, kostenfrei verfügbar ab 1.9.2021 -
Literaturhinweis
Why firms offer paid parental leave: an exploratory study (2020)
Zitatform
Goldin, Claudia, Sari Pekkala Kerr & Claudia Olivetti (2020): Why firms offer paid parental leave. An exploratory study. In: I. V. Sawhill & B. Stevenson (Hrsg.) (2020): Paid Leave For Caregiving. Issues And Answers, S. 66-92.
Abstract
"Why do competitive firms in the US provide paid parental leave (PPL)? Which firms do and to what extent? We use several firm- and individual-level data sets to answer these questions. These include the BLS-Employee Benefit Survey (EBS) for 2010 to 2018 and an extensive firm-level data collection that we compiled. Our work is undergirded by a two-period model with competitive firms whose workers vary by their optimal firm-specific training and the probability that each will remain on the job after PPL is taken. We find that firm-provided PPL has greatly increased in the last two decades and generally covers new fathers. The levels of provision differ greatly by the industry, firm size, and the degree of firm-specific training. But even the top-of-the-line firm in the US provides fewer fully paid parental weeks than does the median OECD nation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
frühere (möglicherweise abweichende) Version erschienen als: NBER working paper, 26617Weiterführende Informationen
Kostenfreier Volltext des Sammelwerks -
Literaturhinweis
Gender differences in the volatility of work hours and labor demand (2020)
Guisinger, Amy Y.;Zitatform
Guisinger, Amy Y. (2020): Gender differences in the volatility of work hours and labor demand. In: Journal of macroeconomics, Jg. 66. DOI:10.1016/j.jmacro.2020.103254
Abstract
"This paper examines the role of heterogeneity in a real business cycle model, which traditionally has not fully captured the relative volatility of hours to output. Men and women have different cyclical volatilities in hours worked, which is robust to different filtering methods. This empirical regularity is used to motivate a standard RBC model augmented to allow for two different agents following Jaimovich et al. (2013). These two agents have identical utility functions, but face different elasticities of labor demand due to their different complementarities with capital. These estimated elasticities find that women are more complementary to capital. The calibrated model generates the cyclical volatility of work hours by gender and for the total hours worked that matches the U.S. data better than the traditional representative agent model. I then explore other extensions to this model including investigating the stability of the estimated labor demand elasticities and allowing for various Frisch elasticities of labor supply. This paper demonstrates that allowing for even broad levels of heterogeneity in a simple framework can increase the model’s tractability with the data. Since gender is important to explain U.S. business cycle dynamics, we need to carefully consider heterogeneity when analyzing counter-cyclical economic policy, as it may not have symmetric effects across assorted groups." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2020 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does the added worker effect matter? (2020)
Zitatform
Guner, Nezih, Yuliya Kulikova & Arnau Valladares-Esteban (2020): Does the added worker effect matter? (IZA discussion paper 12923), Bonn, 32 S.
Abstract
"The added worker effect (AWE) measures the entry of individuals into the labor force due to their partners’ job loss. We propose a new method to calculate the AWE, which allows us to estimate its effect on any labor market outcome. We show that the AWE reduces the fraction of households with two non-employed members. The AWE also accounts for why women’s employment is less cyclical and more symmetric compared to men. In recessions, while some women lose their employment, others enter the labor market and find jobs. This keeps the female employment relatively stable." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Gender Gap Among Top Business Executives (2020)
Zitatform
Keller, Wolfgang, Teresa Molina & William W. Olney (2020): The Gender Gap Among Top Business Executives. (NBER working paper 28216), Cambridge, Mass, 35 S.
Abstract
"This paper examines gender differences among top business executives using a large executive-employer matched data set spanning the last quarter century. Female executives make up 6.2% of the sample and we find they exhibit more labor market churning – both higher entry and higher exit rates. Unconditionally, women earn 26% less than men, which decreases to 7.9% once executive characteristics, firm characteristics, and in particular job title are accounted for. The paper explores the extent to which firm-level temporal flexibility and corporate culture can explain these gender differences. Although we find that women tend to select into firms with temporal flexibility and a female-friendly corporate culture, there is no evidence that this sorting drives the gender pay gap. However, we do find evidence that corporate culture affects pay gaps within firms: the within-firm gender pay gap disappears entirely at female-friendly firms. Overall, while both corporate culture and flexibility affect the female share of employment, only corporate culture influences the gender pay gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
An unforeseen story of alpha-woman: breadwinner women are more likely to quit the job in work-family conflicts (2020)
Zitatform
Kim, Rae Yule (2020): An unforeseen story of alpha-woman: breadwinner women are more likely to quit the job in work-family conflicts. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 52, H. 55, S. 6009-6021. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2020.1781775
Abstract
"Extensive research studied the effect of work-family conflicts on employee turnover, however, limited studies explored how work-family conflicts might influence the turnover decision. This paper utilizes role congruity theory and predicts that the employee vulnerability to work-family conflicts might be enhanced when their perceived and actual parental roles are incongruent. This study examines the life history of 8,616 working parents in the U.S. National Longitudinal Surveys and finds that there is a gender difference in how employees respond to increasing family demands. Ironically, the results of this study indicate that growing family demands influence women to quit the job when they are the dominant financial provider to the family. Family demands did not have a significant effect on employee turnover for non-breadwinner women. Men are more likely to stay in the job as the family demand increases. The findings suggest that role-incongruity might be a substantial influence on how employees handle work-family conflicts. We also discus sthe policy implications from this study." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Workplace gender pay gaps: Does gender matter less the longer employees stay? (2020)
Zitatform
Kronberg, Anne-Kathrin (2020): Workplace gender pay gaps: Does gender matter less the longer employees stay? In: Work and occupations, Jg. 47, H. 1, S. 3-43. DOI:10.1177/0730888419868748
Abstract
"Research indicates men often receive greater merit rewards than women for the same performance. It is unclear, however, whether gender differences in merit rewards narrow with increasing firm tenure or whether gender differences in merit-rewards stay constant across employees' firm-internal career. Using longitudinal personnel records of a private U.S. employer (2005 - 2014), the author finds no evidence for declining gender effects on pay when employees stay longer, not even among nonprofessionals where performance is easier to assess. Results contradict information-based theories and speak to status characteristics theory. Moreover, gender disparities are significant only when supervisors have discretion over merit increases." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The persistence of pay inequality: The gender pay gap in an anonymous online labor market (2020)
Litman, Leib ; Waxman, Joshua ; Bates, Lisa M. ; Rosen, Zohn ; Robinson, Jonathan ; Rosenzweig, Cheskie ;Zitatform
Litman, Leib, Jonathan Robinson, Zohn Rosen, Cheskie Rosenzweig, Joshua Waxman & Lisa M. Bates (2020): The persistence of pay inequality: The gender pay gap in an anonymous online labor market. In: PLoS ONE, Jg. 15, H. 2. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0229383
Abstract
"Studies of the gender pay gap are seldom able to simultaneously account for the range of alternative putative mechanisms underlying it. Using CloudResearch, an online microtask platform connecting employers to workers who perform research-related tasks, we examine whether gender pay discrepancies are still evident in a labor market characterized by anonymity, relatively homogeneous work, and flexibility. For 22,271 Mechanical Turk workers who participated in nearly 5 million tasks, we analyze hourly earnings by gender, controlling for key covariates which have been shown previously to lead to differential pay for men and women. On average, women's hourly earnings were 10.5% lower than men's. Several factors contributed to the gender pay gap, including the tendency for women to select tasks that have a lower advertised hourly pay. This study provides evidence that gender pay gaps can arise despite the absence of overt discrimination, labor segregation, and inflexible work arrangements, even after experience, education, and other human capital factors are controlled for. Findings highlight the need to examine other possible causes of the gender pay gap. Potential strategies for reducing the pay gap on online labor markets are also discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The gender pay gap in the USA: A matching study (2020)
Zitatform
Meara, Katie, Francesco Pastore & Allan Webster (2020): The gender pay gap in the USA: A matching study. In: Journal of population economics, Jg. 33, H. 1, S. 271-305. DOI:10.1007/s00148-019-00743-8
Abstract
"This study examines the gender wage gap in the USA using two separate cross-sections from the Current Population Survey (CPS). The extensive literature on this subject includes wage decompositions that divide the gender wage gap into 'explained' and 'unexplained' components. One of the problems with this approach is the heterogeneity of the sample data. In order to address the difficulties of comparing like with like, this study uses a number of different matching techniques to obtain estimates of the gap. By controlling for a wide range of other influences, in effect, we estimate the direct effect of simply being female on wages. However, a number of other factors, such as parenthood, gender segregation, part-time working, and unionization, contribute to the gender wage gap. This means that it is not just the core 'like for like' comparison between male and female wages that matters but also how gender wage differences interact with other influences. The literature has noted the existence of these interactions, but precise or systematic estimates of such effects remain scarce. The most innovative contribution of this study is to do that. Our findings imply that the idea of a single uniform gender pay gap is perhaps less useful than an understanding of how gender wages are shaped by multiple different forces." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen als: GLO discussion paper , 363 -
Literaturhinweis
His and Her Earnings Following Parenthood in the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom (2020)
Zitatform
Musick, Kelly, Megan Doherty Bea & Pilar Gonalons-Pons (2020): His and Her Earnings Following Parenthood in the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. In: American sociological review, Jg. 85, H. 4, S. 639-674. DOI:10.1177/0003122420934430
Abstract
"This article advances a couple-level framework to examine how parenthood shapes within-family gender inequality by education in three countries that vary in their normative and policy context: the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. We trace mothers? share of couple earnings and variation by her education in the 10-year window around first birth, using long-running harmonized panel surveys from the 1990s and 2000s (N = 4,117 couples and 28,488 couple-years) and an event study methodology that leverages within-couple variation in earnings pre- and post-birth. Our results show steep declines in her share of couple earnings following first birth across the three countries that persist over several years of follow-up. Declines are smallest in the United States, due to U.S. mothers? higher employment and longer work hours. Declines are also smaller among female partners without a college degree in the United States, where mothers have less work-family support and fewer options to manage work and family on one income. Results shed light on how parenthood plays into gender inequality within couples, and how country context shapes couple dynamics and inequality across households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Career Evolution of the Sex Gap in Wages: Discrimination vs. Human Capital Investment (2020)
Zitatform
Neumark, David & Giannina Vaccaro (2020): The Career Evolution of the Sex Gap in Wages. Discrimination vs. Human Capital Investment. (NBER working paper 28191), Cambridge, Mass, 39 S.
Abstract
"Several studies find that there is little sex gap in wages at labor market entry, and that the sex gap in wages emerges (and grows) with time in the labor market. This evidence is consistent with (i) there is little or no sex discrimination in wages at labor market entry, and (ii) the emergence of the sex gap in wages with time in the labor market reflects differences between men and women in human capital investment (and other decisions), with women investing less early in their careers. Indeed, some economists explicitly interpret the evidence this way. We show that this interpretation ignores two fundamental implications of the human capital model, and that differences in investment can complicate the interpretation of both the starting sex gap in wages (or absence of a gap), and the differences in “returns” to experience. We then estimate stylized structural models of human capital investment and wage growth to identify the effects of discrimination and differences in human capital investment, and find evidence more consistent with discrimination reducing women's wages at labor market entry." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Boxed In: Beliefs about the Compatibility and Likability of Mother-Occupation and Father-Occupation Role Combinations (2020)
Zitatform
Noonan, Mary C., Freda B. Lynn & Mark H. Walker (2020): Boxed In: Beliefs about the Compatibility and Likability of Mother-Occupation and Father-Occupation Role Combinations. In: Socius, Jg. 6, S. 1-20. DOI:10.1177/2378023120942449
Abstract
"Researchers have long noted that role expectations of a "good" mother conflict with those of a "good" worker, described as the "cultural contradiction" of motherhood. But given that work roles vary tremendously in terms of the cultural meanings the public assigns them, the authors examine variability in the perceived compatibility of mother-occupation and father-occupation combinations. Building on previous research, the authors hypothesize that (1) some parent-occupation pairings will be viewed as significantly less compatible because of incongruent expectations and meanings, and (2) incumbents of supposedly compatible parent-occupation pairings will be evaluated more favorably than incumbents of incompatible pairings. Both hypotheses are tested using original survey data on perceptions of mothers and fathers in 28 occupations merged with occupational characteristics from secondary data sources. The results strongly suggest that even though there are well-known prescriptive norms for both mothers and fathers, mothers’ occupational choices are more actively policed compared with fathers?." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
After-School Childcare Arrangements and Maternal Labor Supply in Low-Income American Households: Comparisons between Race and Ethnicity (2020)
Park, Hyejoon; Choi, Shinwoo; Zhan, Min;Zitatform
Park, Hyejoon, Min Zhan & Shinwoo Choi (2020): After-School Childcare Arrangements and Maternal Labor Supply in Low-Income American Households. Comparisons between Race and Ethnicity. In: Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, Jg. 47, H. 4.
Abstract
"Even though after-school childcare arrangements are a significant matter for working mothers in the United States, only formal childcare has been recognized as relevant by researchers. Therefore, this study aims to find the association between different types of after-school childcare arrangements (after-school programs, relative, parental, self-care, and combination of care) and low-income working mothers’ labor supply, including their working hours and months, with special attention to their race/ethnicity. The study employed the Ordinary Least Squares regression analysis and utilized the National Household Education Survey Programs: After-School Programs and Activities (2005). The results showed that White and Hispanic mothers using relative care reported longer working hours than mothers of the same ethnic groups who used other types of care. Hispanic mothers using parental (spousal) care also reported fewer working months than Hispanic mothers using relative care. Implications for policy, social work practice, and research are discussed along with limitations, including the cross-sectional design of the study." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
A Survey of Gender Gaps through the Lens of the Industry Structure and Local Labor Markets (2020)
Petrongolo, Barbara; Ronchi, Maddalena;Zitatform
Petrongolo, Barbara & Maddalena Ronchi (2020): A Survey of Gender Gaps through the Lens of the Industry Structure and Local Labor Markets. (CEP discussion paper 1688), London, 39 S.
Abstract
"In this paper we discuss some strands of the recent literature on the evolution of gender gaps and their driving forces. We will revisit key stylized facts about gender gaps in employment and wages in a few high-income countries. We then discuss and build on one gender-neutral force behind the rise in female employment, namely the rise of the service economy. This is also related to the polarization of female employment and to the geographic distribution of jobs, which is expected to be especially relevant for female employment prospects. We finally turn to currently debated causes of remaining gender gaps and discuss existing evidence on labor market consequences of women's heavier caring responsibilities in the household. In particular, we highlight how women's stronger distaste for commuting time may feed into gender pay gaps by making women more willing to trade off steeper wage gains for shorter commutes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
From Professionals to Professional Mothers: How College-educated Married Mothers Experience Unemployment in the US (2020)
Zitatform
Rao, Aliya Hamid (2020): From Professionals to Professional Mothers. How College-educated Married Mothers Experience Unemployment in the US. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 34, H. 2, S. 299-316. DOI:10.1177/0950017019887334
Abstract
Unemployment influences life experiences and outcomes, but how it does so may be shaped by gender and parenthood. Because research on unemployment focuses on men’s experiences of unemployment, it presents as universal a process that may be gendered. This article asks: how do college-educated, heterosexual, married mothers experience involuntary unemployment? Drawing on in-depth interviews with unemployed mothers in the US, their husbands, and follow-up interviews, this article finds that the experience of job loss is tempered for mothers as they derive a culturally valued identity from motherhood which also anchors their lives. Husbands’ support emphasises that employment is one of several options mothers can pursue. Couples pivot attention to husbands’ careers as they worry about finances, often resulting in marital tensions. Using mothers’ unemployment as a case, this study demonstrates that unemployment has more divergent implications depending on gender and parenthood than prior theories suggest. (Author's Abstract, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
The central role for the ask gap in gender pay inequality (2020)
Zitatform
Roussille, Nina (2020): The central role for the ask gap in gender pay inequality. 67 S.
Abstract
"The gender ask gap measures the extent to which women ask for lower salaries than comparable men. This paper studies the role of the ask gap in generating wage inequality using novel data from Hired.com, a leading online recruitment platform for full time engineering jobs in the United States. To use the platform, job candidates must post an ask salary, stating how much they want to make in their next job. Firms then apply to candidates by offering a bid salary they are willing to pay the candidate. If the candidate is hired, a final salary is recorded. After adjusting for resume characteristics, the ask gap is 3.3%, the bid gap is 2.4% and the gap in final offers is 1.8%. Remarkably, further controlling for the ask salary explains all of the gender gaps in bid and final salary on the platform. To estimate the market-level effects of an increase in women’s ask salary, I exploit a sudden change in how candidates were prompted to provide their ask salary. For a subset of candidates, in mid-2018, the answer box used to solicit the ask salary went from an empty field to a pre-filled entry with the median salary on the platform for a similar candidate. Comparing candidates creating a profile before and after the feature change, I find that this change drove the ask gap and the bid gap to zero. In addition, women received the same number of bids before and after the change, suggesting they face little penalty for demanding wages comparable to men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern
- Kinderbetreuung und Pflege
- Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation
- Berufsrückkehr – Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt
- Dual-Career-Couples
- Work-Life
- Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede
- Familienpolitische Rahmenbedingungen
- Aktive/aktivierende Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- Arbeitslosigkeit und passive Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- geografischer Bezug