Zitatform

Barth, Erling, Liza Reisel & Kjersti Misje Østbakken (2024): The Equality Hurdle: Resolving the Welfare State Paradox. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 38, H. 3, S. 766-786. DOI:10.1177/09500170231155293

Abstract

"This article revisits a central tenet of the welfare state paradox, also known as the inclusion-equality trade-off. Using large-scale survey data for 31 European countries and the United States, collected over a recent 15-year period, the article re-investigates the relationship between female labour force participation and gender segregation. Emphasising the transitional role played by the monetisation of domestic tasks, the study identifies a ‘gender equality hurdle’ that countries with the highest levels of female labour force participation have already passed. The results show that occupational gender segregation is currently lower in countries with high female labour force participation, regardless of public sector size. However, the findings also indicate that high relative levels of public spending on health, education and care are particularly conducive to desegregation. Hence, rather than being paradoxical, more equality in participation begets more equality in the labour market, as well as in gendered tasks in society overall." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Han, Sinn Won, Ohjae Gowen & Mary C. Brinton (2024): When mothers do it all: gender-role norms, women's employment, and fertility intentions in post-industrial societies. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 40, H. 2, S. 309-325. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcad036

Abstract

"Post-industrial countries with high rates of female labour force participation have generally had low fertility rates, but recent studies demonstrate that this is no longer the case. This has generated increased attention to how greater gender equality in the private sphere of the household may contribute to a positive relationship between women’s employment rates and fertility. Building on recent scholarship demonstrating the multidimensionality of gender-role attitudes, we argue that conversely, the prevalence of a gender-role ideology that supports women’s employment but places greater priority on their role as caregivers may depress the higher-order fertility intentions of working mothers. Using data from 25 European countries, we find that this type of gender-role ideology (egalitarian familism) moderates the relationship between mothers’ full-time employment and their intention to have a second child. This holds even after accounting for key features of the policy environment that are likely to mitigate work–family conflict. The analysis suggests that conflicting normative expectations for women’s work and family roles tend to dampen working mothers’ second-order fertility intentions, independent of work–family reconciliation policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Leitner, Sandra M. (2024): Working from Home and Mental Well-being in the EU at Different Stages of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Gendered Look at Key Mediators. (WIIW working paper 244), Wien, 44 S.

Abstract

"This paper analyses the relationship between working from home (WFH) and mental well-being at different stages during the first two critical years of the COVID-19 pandemic, when governments repeatedly imposed lockdowns and enacted WFH mandates to contain the spread of the virus. Using data from a representative survey conducted at four different time periods in 2020 (first lockdown, subsequent gradual reopening), 2021 (further lockdown) and 2022 (restrictions widely lifted) in the 27 EU member states, it examines the potentially changing role of several mediators over time, such as work-family conflict, family-work conflict, stability, resilience, isolation, the importance of different support networks, workload, physical risk of contracting COVID-19 at work, and housing conditions. For the first lockdown, it also differentiates by previous WFH experience, in terms of WFH novices and experienced WFH workers. It differentiates by gender, in order to take the potential gendered nature and effect of COVID-19 measures into account. The results show that while there was no direct relationship between WFH and mental well-being, there are several important mediators whose relevance was specific not only to certain stages of the pandemic, but also to previous experience with WFH and gender. Stability is the only mediator that was relevant over the entire two-year pandemic period. Work-family conflict and family-work conflict were only relevant during the first lockdown, while resilience and isolation mattered especially when most of the EU economies had lifted most of their restrictions. Unlike established WFH workers, WFH novices had an advantage during the first lockdown, benefiting from lower family-work conflict and more helpful networks of family and friends. Moreover, our results differ by gender for females who undertook WFH, important mediators were work-family conflict and family-work conflict. Both were related to adjustments they had to make in work and non-work" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Popova, Daria, Katrin Gasior & Silvia Avram (2024): Outside the box? – Women's individual poverty risk in the EU and the role of labor market characteristics and tax-benefit policies. (ISER working paper series / Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex 2024-02), Colchester, 31 S.

Abstract

"Social policy debates as early as the 1950s have focused on the activation of individuals into employment. This assumes jobs with good work-ing conditions and fair pay; ignores women's reality of part-time work, unpaid care work and the gender pay gap; and has often resulted in the weakening of traditional social protection. We study the individual poverty risk of women under the adult worker paradigm across the EU using the tax-benefit model EUROMOD and EU-SILC data. Comparing the individual poverty risk of working-age women to the benchmark of typical male workers, we highlight heterogeneity driven by women's economic situation and job characteristics and analyze the role of the tax-benefit system in reducing the gap. The analysis shows that only slightly more than one third of women isn't the adult worker model, while this is the case for almost two thirds of men. Inactive and unemployed women are particularly likely to be vulnerable to poverty, but even women with the same characteristics as male reference workers experience a higher poverty risk, highlighting the role of the gender pay gap. Benefits cushion some of the gendered labor market differences but are often not generous enough for unemployed and inactive women or not sufficiently available for self-employed women. Women in atypical employment are furthermore disproportionally affected by taxes and social insurance contributions as they lead to a higher poverty rate, contributing to a larger gap compared to typical male workers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Adriaans, Jule & Matteo Targa (2023): Gender differences in fairness evaluations of own earnings in 28 European countries. In: European Societies, Jg. 25, H. 1, S. 107-131. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2022.2083651

Abstract

"Women tend to evaluate their own pay more favorably than men. Contented women are speculated to not seek higher wages, thus the ‘paradox of the contented female worker’ may contribute to persistent gender pay differences. We extend the literature on gender differences in pay evaluations by investigating fairness evaluations of own earnings and underlying conceptions of fair earnings, providing a closer link to potential subsequent wage demands than previous literature. Using European Social Survey (2018/2019) data, we find no evidence that women evaluate their own earnings more favorably than men. In 15 out of the 28 analyzed countries, women actually report more intense levels of perceived unfairness. Studying fair markups on unfair earnings, i.e. the relative distance between the earnings received and earnings considered fair, we find that women report the same, if not lower, fair markups compared to men in most countries; thus indicating limited potential for perceived unfairness as a driving force to reduce the gender pay gap in Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Adsera, Alícia & Federica Querin (2023): The Gender Wage Gap and Parenthood: Occupational Characteristics Across European Countries. In: European Journal of Population, Jg. 39. DOI:10.1007/s10680-023-09681-4

Abstract

"Different strands of research analyse gender occupational differences and how they relate to differential earnings, especially among parents juggling family demands. We use rich data from PIAAC across a subset of European countries and match occupational characteristics to individuals’ jobs using the O*NET database to analyse, first, whether there are gender differences in the occupational characteristics of jobs, particularly among parents, and second, whether the return to key occupational characteristics varies by gender. Compared to men, women’s jobs generally require more contact with others, less autonomy in decision-making, and less time pressure. In addition, positions held by mothers involve both less leadership expectations and less intensive use of machines than those held by fathers. Further, mothers receive a lower return to both of these occupational characteristics than fathers do. Finally, even though gaps in occupational characteristics such as leadership jointly with the differential sorting of mothers and fathers across sectors explain part of the gender wage gap in Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition models, especially in Continental Europe, a large share remains unexplained particularly in Eastern and Southern European countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Berloffa, Gabriella, Eleonora Matteazzi, Alina Şandor & Paola Villa (2023): Mothers' and daughters' employment in Europe. A comparative analysis. In: Socio-economic review, Jg. 21, H. 2, S. 767-793. DOI:10.1093/ser/mwac046

Abstract

"This article analyzes the intergenerational correlation of employment between young women (at about 30 years of age) and their mothers (when their daughters were about 14 years old), using 2011 European Union Survey on Income and Living Conditions data. It examines the extent to which this correlation varies across 19 European countries and is associated with the socioeconomic context at the national level. Having grown up with a working mother is associated with a sizeable increase in the daughters’ employment probability in almost all countries, with greater effect for women with children. For this group, the intergenerational correlation is smaller in countries where the policy context is less favorable to maternal employment. It is crucial to promote gender equality, challenging individuals’ gender stereotypes through education and in society at large, and create conditions that allow young women’s preferences for work to be realized, enhancing policies that favor a balanced sharing of unpaid work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bonsang, Eric & Joan Costa-Font (2023): The "Demise of the Caregiving Daughter"? Gender Employment Gaps and the Use of Formal and Informal Care in Europe. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16615), Bonn, 51 S.

Abstract

"We revisit the universality of the "caregiving daughter effect", which holds that daughters tend to provide more care to their older parents than sons. Based on rich European data, we document evidence of such an effect in countries with large gender disparities in employment rates, where having daughters also depresses the demand for formal care. In contrast, we find evidence consistent with the "demise of the caregiving daughter" when exposed to narrower gender gaps, where there is no more daughters' effect on formal care. These results point to a reconsideration of caregiving system design amidst the rise of female employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fırat, Mustafa, Mark Visserm & Gerbert Kraaykamp (2023): Work-Family Trajectories Across Europe. Differences Between Social Groups and Welfare Regimes. (SocArXiv papers), 40 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/nghtq

Abstract

"Work and family trajectories develop and interact over the life course in complex ways. However, previous studies drew a fragmented picture of these trajectories and had limited scope. Here, we provide the most comprehensive study of work-family trajectories to date. Using retrospective data from wave 3 and 7 of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, we reconstructed work-family trajectories from age 15 to 49 among almost 80,000 individuals born between 1908 and 1967 across 28 countries. We applied multichannel sequence and cluster analysis to identify work-family trajectories and multinomial logistic regression models to uncover their social composition. Our results revealed six common trajectories. The dominant trajectory represents the standard path of continuous full-time employment and having a partner with children. Women, the lower educated and persons from conservative welfare regimes are underrepresented in this trajectory, whereas men, higher educated people and those from social-democratic and Eastern European welfare regimes are overrepresented. Other trajectories denote a deviation from the standard path, integrating a non-standard form of work with standard family formation or vice versa. Women who have a partner and children generally work part-time or do not work at all. When in full-time employment, women are more likely to be divorced. Lower educated persons are less likely to be full-time workers with non-standard families, yet more likely to be non-employed with standard family formation. Younger cohorts are underrepresented in non-employment but overrepresented in part-time employment with a partner and children. Individuals from Southern European regimes are more likely to be non-working partnered parents and those from social-democratic regimes are more likely to be full-time employed separated parents. We also found pronounced gender differences in how educational level, birth cohort and welfare regime areassociated withwork-family trajectories. Our findings largely highlight the socially stratified nature of work-family trajectories in Europe. We conclude by discussing the potential implications for later-life inequalities,and make our code producing the trajectory data publicly available to facilitate future research." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Giuliani, Giovanni Amerigo (2023): The gender dimension of outsiderness in Western Europe: a comparative cross-model analysis. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 43, H. 13/14, S. 62-78. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-12-2022-0317

Abstract

"Purpose: The article investigates whether and to what extent outsiderness is gendered in Western Europe, both in terms of its spread and degree. It thus explores which male and female post-Fordist social classes are more exposed to the risk of this phenomenon. It also scrutinizes whether such a gendered characterization has varied over time and across clusters of Western European countries. Design/methodology/approach Relying on a comparative analysis of the data provided by the European Social Survey (ESS) dataset and comparing two points in time –the early/mid-2000s and the late 2010s – the work provides both a dichotomous and continuous variable of outsiderness, which measure its spread and degree in the female and male workforces of a pooled set of growth models. Findings The empirical analysis shows that outsiderness is profoundly gendered in Western Europe and thus a feminized social phenomenon. However, the comparative investigation highlights that outsiderness has been genderized in diverse ways across the four growth models. Different patterns of gendered outsiderness can be identified. Originality/value The article provides a comparative and diachronic analysis of outsiderness from a gender lens, putting into a mutual dialogue different literature on labour market, and shows that outsiderness represents a key analytical dimension for assessing gender inequalities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Köppl-Turyna, Monika & Nikolaus Graf (2023): Kinderbetreuung und Vereinbarkeit im internationalen Vergleich: Update des EcoAustria Scoreboard-Indikators. (Policy note / EcoAustria - Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung 54), Wien, 21 S.

Abstract

"Die Verfügbarkeit qualitativ hochwertiger, örtlich erreichbarer, zeitlich flexibler Kinderbetreuung stellt eine Grundvoraussetzung der Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie dar. Österreich weist eine überdurchschnittliche Erwerbsbeteiligung von Müttern auf, zugleich findet diese Erwerbsbeteiligung sehr häufig in Form von Teilzeitbeschäftigung statt. Teilzeitbeschäftigung stellt wieder mit, eine Ursache für geschlechtsspezifische Ungleichheiten am Arbeitsmarkt dar. Institutionelle Kinderbetreuung kann die Arbeitsmarktteilnahme von Müttern befördern und zu einer Ausweitung der Arbeitszeit führen. Zugleich gehen von Kinderbetreuung positive Effekte auf die Bildungsergebnisse und auf die schulische Integration bildungsbenachteiligter Kinder aus. In Anbetracht der aktuellen Arbeitskräfteknappheit kann eine Ausweitung der Erwerbsintegration von Müttern eine Option darstellen, die Nachfrage nach Arbeitskräften zu decken. Kurzum: Von Kinderbetreuung gehen viele positive, gesellschaftlich und politisch erwünschte Effekte aus. Dennoch: Trotz der in der jüngeren Vergangenheit erzielten Fortschritte sind etwa bei der Betreuung von Kleinkindern unter drei Jahren und im Hinblick auf verlängerte flexible Öffnungszeiten am Tagesrand sowie Schließtage während den Ferien Aufholpotenziale insbesondere in ländlichen Regionen gegeben. [...]" (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Lütolf, Meret & Isabelle Stadelmann-Steffen (2023): Do households live the family model they prefer? Household's work patterns across European policy regimes. In: Socio-economic review, Jg. 21, H. 3, S. 1421-1443. DOI:10.1093/ser/mwac023

Abstract

"Studies have investigated the equalizing effect of childcare provision and parental leave schemes on gendered work patterns. However, as the relationship between policies and individual time allocations to paid work is complex and challenging to empirically assess, previous research has clarified single aspects of this complexity. The present study theoretically and empirically combines a household perspective by considering the work behaviors of two partners within one household (i.e. a household's lived family model) with a comparative approach to systematically analyze relationships between specific policy designs and households' paid work patterns in a large sample. The findings imply that extensive childcare policies are systematically related to an egalitarian household organization, mostly among those with small children. This association can be observed across households with varying levels of egalitarian norms. Conversely, the findings suggest that the current design of parental leave policies in the 21 European countries does not allow for a true assessment of the potential of leave schemes to influence the within-household division of labor." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Picatoste, Xose, Anabela Mesquita & Fernando González-Laxe (2023): Gender wage gap, quality of earnings and gender digital divide in the European context. In: Empirica, Jg. 50, H. 2, S. 301-321. DOI:10.1007/s10663-022-09555-8

Abstract

"One of the leading national and international objectives is to achieve more egalitarian societies. Avoiding gender or digital gaps are priorities generally assumed as concerns of governments and international organizations. This paper evaluates the digital gender divide in its three stages: access, use and results, relating it to gender and salary gaps in the context of the European Union. Cluster analysis was conducted to classify the countries according to their gender digital divide. The influence of age and studies level of males and females was revised. Based on the OECD and EUROSTAT data, an empirical analysis was conducted. By comparison of means, the significant variables influencing the gender digital divide were identified, probing that the educational level significantly influences it, especially in what refers to the third stage. Finally, through a regression analysis, it was proved that the influence of the insecurity and the gender wage gap goes beyond the women and affects society." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Scherer, Stefani & Emmanuele Pavolini (2023): Equalizing or not? Public childcare and women's labour market participation. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 33, H. 4, S. 436-450. DOI:10.1177/09589287231183169

Abstract

"Within the scientific literature and debate on social investment, public childcare provision plays a pivotal role. At the same time, critics have argued that social investment is often unable to reduce social inequalities and, to the contrary, tends to reproduce them (the so-called ‘Matthew effect’). The article focuses on a specific facet of social investment policies: their capacity to support mothers’ employment and its effect on social inequality, by investigating empirically to what extent an expansion of public childcare can help to increase women’s labour market participation and how this eventual support is homogenously distributed among different mothers’ profiles. To give a convincing answer to such a question requires careful attention to methodology, in order to avoid drawing the wrong conclusions. Whereas existing research has predominately focused on cross-national variation and has often been static in nature, the present study assesses the effects of public childcare expansion on women’s labour market participation and employment by examining region-specific within-variation over time of public childcare coverage. The study relies on data from the European Social Survey (2002–2018) that were integrated with an original collection of regional-level information on public childcare. It finds a positive association between increases in public childcare coverage and mothers’ labour market participation. Furthermore, it shows that public childcare helps to fight social inequalities among households with young children. Low-educated mothers are the ones who profit most from an increase in public childcare, and positive employment effects are most pronounced at lower levels of childcare coverage. Therefore, this contribution highlights the importance of public childcare policies as an equalizer in society, especially in contexts in which an intervention is most needed, because expanding childcare fosters mothers’ labour market participation" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Seo, Hyojin (2023): Gendered labour market patterns across Europe: Does family policy mitigate feminization of outsiders? In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 33, H. 1, S. 3-16. DOI:10.1177/09589287221148916

Abstract

"Studies have shown positive impact of family policies on women’s labour market participation over the last decades. How, then, does it influence the types of jobs women obtain when they (re-)enter the labour market? Using multi-level modelling, this study examines how different work–family balance policies (that is, leave policies, childcare services) shape gendered labour market patterns and whether or not it mitigates women’s overrepresentation among the labour market Outsiders across Europe. I use European Working Conditions Survey 2015 data and cover 30 European countries. Specifically focusing on women’s relative likelihood of being labour market Outsiders compared to men, I find that certain policies help women avoid being Outsiders, while the others may reinforce the existing gender inequality in the labour market. This resonates with the welfare state paradox and family policy trade-off literature that the policies that do not disrupt the gender norms may in turn maintain or enhance them." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Zacchia, Giulia & Izaskun Zuazu (2023): The Wage Effect of Workplace Sexual Harassment: Evidence for Women in Europe. (Working papers / Institute for New Economic Thinking 205),: Institute for New Economic Thinking 27 S. DOI:10.36687/inetwp205

Abstract

"This article contributes to the literature on wage discrimination by examining the consequences of sexual harassment in the workplace on wages for women in Europe. We model the empirical relationship between sexual harassment risk and wages for European women employees using individual-level data provided by the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS, Eurostat). We find that sexual harassment risk has a negative and statistically significant effect on wages of -0.03% on average for women in Europe. However, our empirical analysis uncovers the importance of considering the dynamics of workplace power relations: analyzing individual-level data, we find evidence of a higher negative impact of sexual harassment risk on wages for women working in counter-stereotypical occupations. We conclude that the wage effect of hostile working conditions, mainly in terms of sexual harassment risk in the workplace, should be considered and monitored as a first critical step in making women be less vulnerable at work and increasing their bargaining power, thereby reducing inequalities in working conditions and pay in Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Europäische Kommission. Generaldirektion Beschäftigung, Soziales und Integration (2023): Quarterly Review of Employment and Social Developments in Europe (ESDE) - April 2023. (Employment and social developments in Europe : Quarterly review), Luxembourg, 25 S.

Abstract

"The thematic part of this review focuses on gender segregation in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and healthcare occupations across EU Member States. This is an important topic in the context of the upcoming European Year of Skills, because gender segregation can both limit the efficiency of matching labour supply with demand and results in suboptimal use of women’s and men’s talents. The thematic focus shows that both STEM and healthcare occupations are heavily gender segregated in nearly all Member States. It highlights that in many countries, much of the existing segregation is explained by the fact that female and male workers tend to hold qualifications in different study fields – this applies particularly in the case of STEM occupations. Finally, it demonstrates that in most Member States, desegregation offers an important opportunity to attract new workers into STEM and healthcare occupations facing shortages." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Alcidi, Cinzia & Alexandre Ounnas (2022): Can the Pay Transparency Directive close the gender pay gap? (CEPS policy insights 2022-06), Brussels, 10 S.

Abstract

"Today, our thoughts go out to all women who have had to flee Ukraine to escape horror and to save their children, and to all those women who have remained behind to help defend their homeland. To those men and women who have the chance to live in (still) peaceful EU countries, we want to recall that gender equality remains a top priority. In the EU, major progress has been made in advancing women’s rights over the past 25 years but challenges still remain, especially on the labour market. The gender pay gap is definitely not yet closed. Despite progress over the past few years, women in the EU are still paid less than men for equal work of equal value. In 2018, the gap was on average 14 %, and it is likely to have increased during the pandemic. In 2019, President von der Leyen put gender equality among the six priorities of her new Commission. In March 2021 the Commission published a proposal for a Directive to strengthen the application of the principle of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value between men and women through pay transparency and enforcement mechanisms. Is pay transparency important to close the gender pay gap? The short answer is yes. Over time women have been closing gaps relative to men in education, labour market participation, and attitude; areas which typically (used to) explain the gap. Yet pay differences persist. New research points to within-company dynamics as one of the most significant contributors to the pay gap. The directive proposes to address it through transparency and information sharing. This is expected to reduce the gender pay gap, even though the implementation, and in particular the operationalisation of the concept of equal work, will pose challenges to companies, and eventually can negatively weigh on the overall benefits." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bartova, Alzbeta, Adeline Otto & Wim Van Lancker (2022): Making Parental Leave Policies Work for Single Mothers: Lessons from Europe. In: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Jg. 702, H. 1, S. 129-148. DOI:10.1177/00027162221134445

Abstract

"It is well documented that national parental leave policies encourage parents’ employment. Research on parental leave, though, has generally failed to draw lessons on how leave policy affects the employment and economic well-being of single parents. We examine the extent to which parental leave policies support the employment of single mothers with children under six years old across twenty-seven European countries, showing that single mothers are more likely to work and to work longer hours if they are eligible for parental leave. For single mothers who were not working before childbirth, eligibility for generous leave benefits and longer parental leave are associated with better employment outcomes after childbirth. We argue that while parental leave sustains employment for working single mothers, it might also facilitate entry into employment for nonworking mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bohmann, Sandra & Stefan Liebig (2022): Knapp ein Drittel der EuropäerInnen zweifelt an Chancengerechtigkeit auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. In: DIW-Wochenbericht, Jg. 89, H. 7, S. 97-106. DOI:10.18723/diw_wb:2022-7-3

Abstract

"Chancengerechtigkeit ist ein zentraler Bestandteil unserer Erwartungen an eine demokratische Gesellschaft. Dies gilt auch für den Arbeitsmarkt: Dieser Wochenbericht untersucht anhand von Befragungsdaten des European Social Survey 2018 (ESS), wie die europäischen Bürgerinnen und Bürger ihre Chancen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt ihrer Heimatländer einschätzen und welche Faktoren auf gesellschaftlicher und individueller Ebene dabei eine Rolle spielen. Etwa ein Drittel der Befragten ist skeptisch, was die allgemeine Chancengerechtigkeit auf dem Arbeitsmarkt in ihrem Land betrifft. Die eigenen Chancen schätzt immerhin die Hälfte der Befragten als gerecht ein. Sowohl die allgemeinen als auch die eigenen Chancen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt werden im Norden Europas etwas positiver bewertet als im Süden. Ohnehin benachteiligte Gruppen beurteilen auch ihre Arbeitsmarktchancen weniger positiv. Insgesamt zeigt sich ein klarer Zusammenhang zwischen der wahrgenommenen Changengerechtigkeit und der Zufriedenheit mit der Demokratie im eigenen Land." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Canaan, Serena, Anne Sophie Lassen, Philip Rosenbaum & Herdis Steingrimsdottir (2022): Maternity Leave and Paternity Leave: Evidence on the Economic Impact of Legislative Chances in High Income Countries. (IZA discussion paper 15129), Bonn, 48 S.

Abstract

"Labor market policies for expecting and new mothers emerged at the turn of the nineteenth century. The main motivation for these policies was to ensure the health of mothers and their newborn children. With increased female labor market participation, the focus has gradually shifted to the effects that parental leave policies have on women's labor market outcomes and gender equality. Proponents of extending parental leave rights for mothers in terms of duration, benefits, and job protection have argued that this will support mothers' labor market attachment and allow them to take time off from work after childbirth and then safely return to their pre-birth job. Others have pointed out that extended maternity leave can work as a double-edged sword for mothers: If young women are likely to spend months, or even years, on leave, employers are likely to take that into consideration when hiring and promoting their employees. These policies may therefore end up adversely affecting women's labor market outcomes. This has led to an increased focus on activating fathers to take parental leave, and in 2019, the European Parliament approved a directive requiring member states to ensure at least two months of earmarked paternity leave. The literature on parental leave has proliferated over the last couple of decades. The increased number of studies on the topic has brought forth some consistent findings. First, the introduction of short maternity leave is found to be beneficial for both maternal and child health and for mothers' labor market outcomes. Second, there appear to be negligible benefits from a leave extending beyond six months in terms of health out-comes and children's long-run outcomes. Furthermore, longer leaves have little, or even adverse, influence on mothers' labor market outcomes. However, some evidence suggests that there may be underlying heterogeneous effects from extended leaves among different socioeconomic groups. The literature on the effect of earmark" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Costantini, Anastasia & Alessia Sebillo (2022): Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in Social Economy Enterprises: Enablers and Barriers. (Working paper / CIRIEC 2022,02), Liège, 34 S.

Abstract

"Women remain underrepresented in the labour market. In the EU, they earn 14,1% less than men, and they still experience barriers to access and remain at the labour market (Eurostat, 2021a). Currently, the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the gender dimension of social and economic inequalities, producing a severe gender impact and the risk of economic marginalisation of women. Why do we expect the social and solidarity economy to improve gender equality at work? Therefore, the paper will discuss the potential and limits of the SEEs in promoting gender equality and women's empowerment. The analysis has referenced existing literature and available information on the sector, including interviews with experts and illustrative cases within Diesis Network2, one of the broadest European networks supporting the social economy and social enterprise development. The aim is to show impactful solutions of SEEs and bring social and solidarity economy closer to the gender perspective to increase their impact in supporting inclusive and sustainable growth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Korsgren, Pontus & Max van Lent (2022): Earmarked Paternity Leave and Well-Being. (IZA discussion paper 15022), Bonn, 24 S.

Abstract

"Earmarked paternity leave has been introduced in an attempt to increase fathers' involvement in child rearing and to achieve gender equality in the labor market and at home. So far well-being effects of such policies are unexplored. This paper takes a first step in that direction by studying the impact of earmarked paternity leave quota on life satisfaction, job satisfaction, and work-life balance using several policy changes in Europe over the period 1993-2007. We find that earmarked paternity leave increases life satisfaction by 0.18 on a 10 point scale which is equivalent to a 10.8 percentage point increase even decades later. Both fathers and mothers benefit, though the increase in life satisfaction for mothers is nearly 30% higher than that of fathers. Perhaps surprisingly, the impact on job satisfaction and work-life balance is close to zero. Hence even when the impact of paternity leave quota on the labor market are small, the increases in life satisfaction may still justify the existence of such policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Matysiak, Anna, Daniela Bellani & Honorata Bogusz (2022): Industrial robots and fertility in European countries. (Working papers / Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw 2022-26), Warsaw, 65 S.

Abstract

"In this study we examine whether the long-term structural changes in the labour market, driven by automation, affect fertility. Adoption of industrial robots in the EU has tripled since the mid-1990s, tremendously changing the conditions of participating in the labour market. On the one hand, new jobs are created, benefitting largely the highly skilled workers. On the other hand, the growing turnover in the labour market and changing content of jobs induce fears of job displacement and make workers continuously adjust to new requirements (reskill, upskill, increase work efforts). The consequences of these changes are particularly strong for the employment and earning prospects of the low and middle educated workers. Our focus is on six European countries: Czechia, France, Germany, Italy, Poland and the United Kingdom. We link regional data on fertility and employment structures by industry from Eurostat (NUTS-2) with data on robot adoption from the International Federation of Robotics. We estimate fixed effects linear models with instrumental variables in order to account for the external shocks which may affect fertility and robot adoption in parallel. Our findings suggest robots tend to exert a negative impact on fertility in highly industrialised regions, regions with relatively low educated populations and those which are technologically less advanced. At the same time, better educated and prospering regions may even experience fertility improvements as a result of the technological change. The family and labour market institutions of the country may further moderate these effects." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense (2022): No activation without reconciliation? The interplay between ALMP and ECEC in relation to women employment unemployment and inactivity in 30 OECD countries 1985-2018. In: Social Policy and Administration, Jg. 56, H. 5, S. 808-826. DOI:10.1111/spol.12806

Abstract

"Comparative welfare state research as examined the outcomes of active labour market policies (ALMP) and work-family reconciliation policies by and large been separately. As a result, potential complementarities between these policy areas have received scant attention empirically. Using macro-level data, this study answers the question to what extent, and in which way, governments' efforts in ALMP and in early childhood education and care (ECEC) services are complementary to each other in promoting women's employment rates and reducing women's unemployment and inactivity rates in 30 OECD countries from 1985 to 2018. The article theorises about how the various policies that constitute a welfare state relate to each other, distinguishing between pluralism, complementarity and substitutability. These findings provide support for the notion of welfare pluralism, in the sense that ALMP and ECEC policies work together in improving women's employment rates in slightly different ways: ALMP achieve this through reducing women's unemployment rates, whereas ECEC also achieve lower inactivity rates for women. There was, however, more support for the notion of substitution rather than complementarity: the marginal benefits associated with an increase in either ALMP or ECEC were smaller in the context of large investments in the other policy. In other words, the highest rates of women's employment, and the lowest rates of unemployment and inactivity, are found in countries with large investments in both ALMP and ECEC, but such higher investments are associated with diminishing returns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Palencia-Esteban, Amaia (2022): Occupational segregation of female and male immigrants in Europe: Accounting for cross-country differences. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 161, H. 3, S. 341-373. DOI:10.1111/ilr.12207

Abstract

"This article studies occupational segregation in Europe by gender and immigration status using the European Labour Force Survey for 2005–19. Unlike previous studies, it quantifies levels of segregation separately for female and male immigrants in each country. Overall, male immigrants experience lower occupational segregation than their female counterparts and the second generation is less segregated than the first. Segregation is generally lower in North-Western Europe and higher in the South-East. A counterfactual analysis reveals that immigrants' characteristics explain a small part of these cross-country differences. Institutional setting, integration policies and country-specific norms might play a major role." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

Abstract

"Unpaid care duties are key to gender gaps in the labor market. As illustrated in the report, across the Member States, care responsibilities are equally shared between women and men only in about one-third of families. The interplay between labour market and household conditions may create vicious cycles. The unequal division of unpaid care work between men and women reduces women’s access to and permanency in the labor market, and leads to a concentration of women in sectors and jobs allowing greater working time flexibility at the price of lower wages and career opportunities. Gender gaps in the labor market themselves reinforce the unequal division of unpaid care work in households. Work-life balance policies are therefore key for supporting women’s labor market participation and employment and achieving gender equality in the labour market. Although cultural and social norms on the gender division of unpaid work in the household are still relevant, the availability, affordability and quality of childcare and long-term care services, eligibility criteria, length and compensation level of parental, paternity and carers leaves, and flexible working arrangements all play an important role in promoting equal sharing of care tasks in the household enabling full and equal labor market participation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Amate-Fortes, Ignacio, Almudena Guarnido-Rueda, Diego Martínez-Navarro & Francisco J. Oliver-Márquez (2021): Measuring inequality in income distribution between men and women: what causes gender inequality in Europe? In: Quality & quantity, Jg. 55, H. 2, S. 395-418. DOI:10.1007/s11135-020-01009-2

Abstract

"Two objectives have been raised in this paper. On the one hand, an index has been elaborated that tries to measure the inequality of the income distribution between men and women. Secondly, the factors that determine this inequality have been analyzed, paying special attention to the role of the public sector through social expenditure policy. To this end, a panel data has been estimated for 33 European countries over a period of 15 years. The results show that income inequality and gender inequality are closely linked, and that social spending in general and health spending in particular improve income distribution equity between men and women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Bacheron, Johanne (2021): The impact of paternity leave on mothers' employment in Europe. (AMSE working paper 2021,10 halshs-03145794), Paris, 48 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, I use a pseudo-panel approach with data from the European Union Labour Force Survey to study the impact of paternity leave policies on mothers' employment in ten countries. Using a dynamic Difference-in-Difference strategy, I show that paternity leave increased mothers' employment rate by up to 17% in the long run, and average hours worked by 2 to 4%. There is substantial heterogeneity across countries in the effect of paternity leave policies. The impact on employment rates is positive and significant in eight of the ten countries of the sample, while the impact on hours worked can be either positive or negative. I find no evidence that the reforms had any impact on Greece or Portugal." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Baranowska-Rataj, Anna & Mattias Strandh (2021): When things go wrong with you, it hurts me too: The effects of partner's employment status on health in comparative perspective. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 31, H. 2, S. 143-160. DOI:10.1177/0958928720963330

Abstract

"The effects of changes in employment status on health within couples have attracted increasing attention. This paper contributes to this emerging research by investigating whether the impact of a partner’s employment status on individual self-rated health varies systematically across countries with varying decommodification levels. We use longitudinal data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) and hybrid models. We find that a change in an individual’s employment status may affect the health not just of the person who experiences this transition, but that of his or her partner. The likelihood that such a spillover will occur varies across countries with different decommodification levels. The negative effects of a partner’s employment status on self-rated health are observed when the generosity of welfare state support is limited. The moderating effects of financial support from the state are not very strong, though. They are not robust across all our models and do not extend to all the dimensions of the generosity of welfare state support." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Berniell, Maria Ines, Lucila Berniell, Dolores De la Mata, María Edo, Yarine Fawaz, Matilde P. Machado & Mariana Marchionni (2021): Motherhood and the Allocation of Talent. (IZA discussion paper 14491), Bonn, 40 S.

Abstract

"In this paper we show that motherhood triggers changes in the allocation of talent in the labor market besides the well-known effects on gender gaps in employment and earnings. We use an event study approach with retrospective data for 29 countries drawn from SHARE to assess the labor market responses to motherhood across groups with different educational attainment, math ability by the age of 10, and personality traits. We find that while even the most talented women— both in absolute terms and relative to their husbands—leave the labor market or uptake part-time jobs after the birth of the first child, all men, including the least talented, stay employed. We also find that motherhood induces a negative selection of talents into self-employment. Overall, our results suggest relevant changes in the allocation of talent caused by gender differences in nonmarket responsibilities that can have sizable impacts on aggregate market productivity. We also show that the size of labor market responses to motherhood are larger in societies with more conservative social-norms or with weaker policies regarding work-life balance." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chica-Olmoa, Jorge & Marina Checa-Olivas (2021): Spatial impact of factors influencing the achievement of the Europa2020 employment targets. In: Papers in Regional Science, Jg. 100, H. 3, S. 633-649. DOI:10.1111/pirs.12592

Abstract

"In this paper, autologistic models are used to examine the impact of certain factors on the likelihood of European regions’ ability to meet the employment target for both men and women for the year 2017 in 270 EU regions at NUTS 2 level. The results show the role of both regional and gender differences in forming spatial clusters, as well as the presence of spatial interaction in achievement of the target. Moreover, meeting the European strategy's education target and increasing a region’s GDP levels also have a positive impact on achieving the targets. These findings may be of interest for the implementation of socio‐economic policies at a regional level, aimed at raising the employment rate for men and women in European regions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Ciminelli, Gabriele, Cyrille Schwellnus & Balazs Stadler (2021): Sticky floors or glass ceilings? The role of human capital, working time flexibility and discrimination in the gender wage gap. (OECD Economics Department working papers 1668), Paris, 43 S. DOI:10.1787/02ef3235-en

Abstract

"Despite changes in social norms and policies, on average across 25 European countries, there remains a gap of around 15% in hourly earnings between similarly-qualified men and women. This raises inequality and limits growth by preventing women from reaching their full labour market potential. Using individual-level data, this paper quantifies the main drivers of gender wage gaps with a view to devising effective policies to reduce them. The findings suggest that, on average, “sticky floors” related to social norms, gender stereotyping and discrimination account for 40% of the gender wage gap, while the “glass ceiling” related to the motherhood penalty accounts for around 60%. The importance of the “glass ceiling” is especially large in most Northern and Western European countries, while “sticky floors” explain the major part of the gap in most Central and Eastern European countries. These results imply that most Northern and Western European countries need to prioritise policies to address the motherhood penalty, such as further promoting flexitime and telework and supporting early childcare. Most Central and Eastern European as well as Southern European countries, where “sticky floors” are more important, additionally need to prioritise equal pay and pay transparency laws, measures to address gender stereotyping, competition in product markets, as well as higher wage floors where they are currently low." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gimenez-Nadal, Jose Ignacio & José Alberto Molina (2021): How do women allocate their available time in Europe? Differences with men. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 908), Maastricht, 42 S.

Abstract

"This article explores the gender gap in time allocation in Europe, offering up-to-date statistics and information on several factors that may help to explain these differences. Prior research has identified several factors affecting the time individuals devote to paid work, unpaid work, and child care, and the gender gaps in these activities, but most research refers to single countries, and general patterns are rarely explored. Cross-country evidence on gender gaps in paid work, unpaid work, and child care is offered, and explanations based on education, earnings, and household structure are presented, using data from the EUROSTAT and the Multinational Time Use Surveys. There are large cross-country differences in the gender gaps in paid work, unpaid work, and child care, which remain after controlling for socio-demographic characteristics, although the gender gap in paid work dissipates when the differential gendered relationship between socio-demographic characteristics and paid work is taken into account. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of gender gaps in Europe, helping to focus recent debates on how to tackle inequality in Europe, and clarifying the factors that contribute to gender inequalities in the uses of time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lightman, Naomi & Anthony Kevins (2021): "Women's Work": Welfare State Spending and the Gendered and Classed Dimensions of Unpaid Care. In: Gender & Society, Jg. 35, H. 5, S. 778-805. DOI:10.1177/08912432211038695

Abstract

"This study is the first to explicitly assess the connections between welfare state spending and the gendered and classed dimensions of unpaid care work across 29 European nations. Our research uses multi-level model analysis of European Quality of Life Survey data, examining childcare and housework burdens for people living with at least one child under the age of 18. Two key findings emerge: First, by disaggregating different types of unpaid care work, we find that childcare provision is more gendered than classed—reflecting trends toward “intensive mothering”. Housework and cooking, on the contrary, demonstrate both gender and class effects, likely because they are more readily outsourced by wealthier individuals to the paid care sector. Second, while overall social expenditure has no effect on hours spent on childcare and housework, results suggest that family policy may shape the relationship between gender, income, and housework (but not childcare). Specifically, family policy expenditure is associated with a considerably smaller gender gap vis-à-vis the time dedicated to housework: This effect is present across the income spectrum, but is particularly substantial in the case of lower income women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Magda, Iga & Katarzyna Lipowska (2021): Flexibility of Working Time Arrangements and Female Labor Market Outcome. (IZA discussion paper 14812), Bonn, 18 S.

Abstract

"We use data from the 2019 EU Labor Force Survey to study gender and parenthood gaps in two dimensions of flexibility in working time arrangements in 25 European countries. We find that overall in Europe, there is no statistically significant gender difference in access to flexible work arrangements. However, women are less likely than men to have flexible working hours in the Central-Eastern and Southern European countries, whereas this gender gap is reversed in Continental Europe. At the same time, women are less likely than men to face demands from their employers that they work flexible hours. We also find that both mothers and fathers are more likely than their childless colleagues to have access to flexible working hours, but that fathers' workplaces are more likely than mothers' workplaces to demand temporal flexibility from employees. In addition, we find that working in a female-dominated occupation decreases the probability of having access to flexible work arrangements, and that this effect is stronger for women than for men. At the same time, we observe that both men and women who work in female-dominated occupations are less exposed to flexibility demands from employers than their counterparts who work in male-dominated or gender-neutral occupations. Finally, we find that compared to employers in other Europeans countries, employers in the Central and Eastern European countries are less likely to offer flexible working hours, especially to women, and with no additional flexibility being offered to parents; whereas employers in Continental and Nordic countries are more likely to offer flexible work arrangements, and with no gender gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Moriconi, Simone & Núria Rodríguez-Planas (2021): Gender Norms and the Motherhood Employment Gap. (CESifo working paper 9471), München, 45 S.

Abstract

"Using individual-level data from the European Social Survey, we study the relevance of gender norms in accounting for the motherhood employment gap across 186 European NUTS2 regions (over 29 countries) for the 2002-2016 period. The gender norm variable is taken from a question on whether “men should have more right to a job than women when jobs are scarce” and represents the average extent of disagreement (on a scale 1 to 5) of women belonging to the “grandmothers” cohort. We address the potential endogeneity of our gender norms measure with an index of the degree of reproductive health liberalization when grandmothers were 20 years old. We also account for the endogeneity of motherhood with the level of reproductive health liberalization when mothers were 20 years old. We find a robust positive association between progressive beliefs among the grandmothers' cohort and mothers' likelihood to work while having a small child (0 to 5 years old) relative to similar women without children. No similar association is found among men. Our analysis underscores the role of gender norms and maternal employment, suggesting that non-traditional gender norms mediate on the employment gender gap mainly via motherhood." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Schmieder, Julia & Katharina Wrohlich (2021): Gender Pay Gap im europäischen Vergleich: Positiver Zusammenhang zwischen Frauenerwerbsquote und Lohnlücke. In: DIW-Wochenbericht, Jg. 88, H. 9, S. 141-147. DOI:10.18723/diw_wb:2021-9-3

Abstract

"Das öffentliche Interesse am Gender Pay Gap ist in den letzten Jahren in Deutschland deutlich gestiegen. Gleichzeitig hat sich bei der prozentualen Lohnlücke zwischen Frauen und Männern hierzulande kaum etwas getan. Ein europäischer Vergleich zeigt, dass niedrigere Frauenerwerbsquoten tendenziell mit einem niedrigeren Gender Pay Gap einhergehen. Eine Erklärung hierfür sind über die Länder variierende Geschlechterunterschiede in den Charakteristika der erwerbstätigen Bevölkerung. Sowohl im Vergleich zu allen Ländern als auch ausschließlich zu solchen mit ähnlichen Frauenerwerbsquoten hat Deutschland einen der höchsten Gender Pay Gaps in Europa. Im Gegensatz dazu fallen die nordischen Länder mit ihren vergleichsweise niedrigen Lohnlücken bei gleichzeitig hohen Frauenerwerbsquoten im europäischen Vergleich besonders positiv auf. Die Ausweitung der Partnermonate beim Elterngeld, der quantitative und qualitative Ausbau der Kinderbetreuung und eine Reform des Ehegattensplittings sind geeignete Instrumente um mehr Gleichstellung am Arbeitsmarkt zu erreichen – sowohl hinsichtlich der Erwerbsbeteiligung als auch der Löhne." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Sikirić, Ana Marija (2021): The Effect of Childcare Use on Gender Equality in European Labor Markets. In: Feminist economics, Jg. 27, H. 4, S. 90-113. DOI:10.1080/13545701.2021.1933560

Abstract

"Parenthood necessarily increases the scope of unpaid work in households and tends to depress women’s employment rates relative to men’s. This paper examines the relationship between the use of full-time childcare for children under 3 years of age and employment rates for men and women with one, two, or three or more children under 6 years of age in European households. Panel data from a sample of the (then) twenty-eight European Union member states for the 2005–15 period were analyzed. The results indicate that smaller differences between employment rates of men and women with one, two, or three or more children under 6 years of age are associated with greater use of full-time childcare arrangements for children under the age of 3." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Winkle, Zachary Van & Anette Fasang (2021): The complexity of employment and family life courses across 20th century Europe: More evidence for larger cross-national differences but little change across 1916‒1966 birth cohorts. In: Demographic Research, Jg. 44, S. 775-810. DOI:10.4054/DemRes.2021.44.32

Abstract

"Background: There has been much debate whether work and family lives became more complex in past decades, that is, exhibiting more frequent transitions and more uncertainty. Van Winkle and Fasang (2017) and Van Winkle (2018) first benchmarked change in employment and family complexity over time against cross-national differences in 14 European countries. Compared to sizeable and stable cross-national differences, the increase in employment and family complexity was small across cohorts. However, these studies could not include cohorts born past the late 1950s assumed to be most affected by the structural changes driving life course complexity and were limited to a relatively small set of West European countries. Objective: We replicate and extend these studies by adding over 15 additional countries in Eastern Europe and a decade of younger birth cohorts. Methods: The 3rd and 7th waves of the Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe, sequence complexity metrics, and cross-classified modelling are used to simultaneously quantify the proportions of variance attributable to cohort and country differences in work and family lives between ages 18 to 50. Results: The updated findings still support a negligible increase in family complexity and a moderate increase in employment complexity that pale in comparison to large and stable cross-national differences for individuals born between 1916 and 1966 for work and family lives experienced from 1934 to 2016 in 30 European countries. Specifically, 15 and 10% of employment and family complexity is nested across countries, compared to 5.5 and 2% across birth cohorts. However, the analyses also indicate a polarization in Europe between most Eastern and Southern European countries with stable and low family complexity compared to Nordic and some Western European countries with high and increasing family complexity. In contrast, moderately increasing employment complexity is a Europe-wide trend. Conclusions: This study both replicates the original studies' findings that cross-cohort change is minor compared to large cross-national differences, and is a substantive extension by addressing a large deficit of description on family and employment life course change in the Balkan and Baltic regions. Contribution: Cross-national comparisons are particularly promising for understanding the institutional drivers of employment and family instability." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Max-Planck-Institut für demographische Forschung) ((en))

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Aksoy, Cevat Giray, Berkay Ozcan & Julia Philipp (2020): Robots and the Gender Pay Gap in Europe. (IZA discussion paper 13482), 48 S.

Abstract

"Could robotization make the gender pay gap worse? We provide the first large-scale evidence on the impact of industrial robots on the gender pay gap using data from 20 European countries. We show that robot adoption increases both male and female earnings but also increases the gender pay gap. Using an instrumental variable strategy, we find that a ten percent increase in robotization leads to a 1.8 percent increase in the gender pay gap. These results are mainly driven by countries with high levels of gender inequality and outsourcing destination countries. We then explore the mechanisms behind this effect and find that our results can be explained by the fact that men at medium- and high-skill occupations disproportionately benefit from robotization (through a productivity effect). We rule out the possibility that our results are driven by mechanical changes in the gender composition of the workforce nor by inflows or outflows from the manufacturing sector." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cabrita, Jorge, Julie Vanderleyden, Isabella Biletta & Barbara Gerstenberger (2020): Gender equality at work. (Eurofound research report / European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions), Genf, 93 S. DOI:10.2806/934654

Abstract

"Gender inequality at work persists across Europe, despite the long standing attention paid and efforts made to tackle it. This Eurofound report presents a closer look at women’s and men’s working conditions, using data from Eurofound’s European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) and complementing previous Eurofound research on, among other things, working time patterns, work–life balance and workers’ health. Beyond the general differences in the labour market, it highlights many important gaps in men’s and women’s working conditions and job quality which require specific attention. According to the EWCS data, the reduction of gender gaps in those areas showing improvement over the last 5 to 10 years remains limited. European and national strategies aimed at achieving job quality for all, that seek to mainstream gender equality, could help address persistent inequalities between men and women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fernández-Macías, Enrique & José-María Arranz-Muñoz (2020): Occupations and the recent trends in wage inequality in Europe. In: European journal of industrial relations, Jg. 26, H. 3, S. 331-346. DOI:10.1177/0959680119866041

Abstract

"We aim to contribute to a better understanding of the role that occupations played in recent trends in wage inequality in some European countries. Using EU-SILC data, we observe that most of the changes in wage inequality between 2005 and 2014 were the result of changes in the distribution of wages within occupations. A longer term approximation using data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) shows similar patterns. We conclude that occupational dynamics did not drive recent trends in wage inequality in Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Goossen, Mikael (2020): The gender gap in welfare state attitudes in Europe. The role of unpaid labour and family policy. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 30, H. 4, S. 452-466. DOI:10.1177/0958928719899337

Abstract

"Previous research has shown a prevailing ‘modern gender gap’ in socio-political attitudes in advanced capitalist economies. While numerous studies have confirmed gender differences in attitudes towards the welfare state in Europe, few have addressed the reason for this rift in men’s and women’s views about the role of government in ensuring the general welfare of citizens. In this article, I examine the relationship between gender equality in unpaid labour, family policy and the gender gap in welfare state attitudes. Based on data from 21 countries participating in the European Social Survey (ESS) Round 4, and using a mix of country- and individual-level regression models and multilevel models, I find that there is a clear relationship between country-level gender equality in unpaid labour and gender differences in support of an encompassing welfare state. A more equal distribution of unpaid care and domestic work correlates with women being increasingly supportive of a large and encompassing welfare state, in comparison with men. This pattern holds when controlling for individual-level economic risk and resources, cultural factors such as trust and social values traditionally related to the support of an encompassing welfare state, and beliefs about welfare state efficiency and consequences for society in general. This pattern is evident for countries with a low level of familistic policies, while no distinguishable pattern is discernible for highly familistic countries. These findings have implications for the perception of gender as an emergent social cleavage with respect to welfare state attitudes. The results are discussed in the light of institutional theories on policy feedback, familism, social role theory and previous findings relating to modernization theory and ‘gender realignment’." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Karabchuk, Tatiana (2020): Job Instability and Fertility Intentions of Young Adults in Europe: Does Labor Market Legislation Matter? In: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Jg. 688, H. 1, S. 225-245. DOI:10.1177/0002716220910419

Abstract

"Total birth rates have fallen dramatically in many European countries during the last 40 years. Job and income instability caused by labor market polarization are significant drivers of declining birth rates because employment certainty and stability are crucial to childbirth planning among young adults. This article investigates the impact of job instability on the fertility intentions of young adults in Europe, focusing on employment protection legislation (EPL) in European countries. I use data from twenty-seven countries that participated in the European Social Survey in 2004 and 2010 to show that job instability measured as temporary employment, informal work, and unemployment decreases fertility intentions among European youth regardless of the EPL in the country. Unemployed young adults tend to plan less for having their first child in the countries with high EPL. Contrary to the hypotheses, multilevel modeling showed that young people in temporary or informal employment in countries with low EPL show decreases in their fertility intentions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lauri, Triin, Kaire Põder & Rossella Ciccia (2020): Pathways to gender equality. A configurational analysis of childcare instruments and outcomes in 21 European countries. In: Social Policy and Administration, Jg. 54, H. 5, S. 646-665. DOI:10.1111/spol.12562

Abstract

"The ability to produce desired outcomes represents an important basis of the legitimacy of social policies. Nonetheless, policy outcomes have not systematically figured in the analysis of childcare regimes despite growing political interest in issues such as female employment, gender wage gap, and men's involvement in childcare. In this article, we use fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis to investigate the relationship between the configuration of policy instruments, attitudes toward childcare and outcomes in 21 European countries. Our results show that there is only one mix of policy instruments consistently linked with positive gen- der equality outcomes and this route has the quality of the universal caregiver model. It also demonstrates that both a combination of policy instruments and favorable attitudinal factors are necessary to produce desirable outcomes in the gender division of paid work and unpaid childcare." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Muller, Joanne S., Nicole Hiekel & Aart C. Liefbroer (2020): The Long-Term Costs of Family Trajectories: Women's Later-Life Employment and Earnings Across Europe. In: Demography, Jg. 57, H. 3, S. 1007-1034. DOI:10.1007/s13524-020-00874-8

Abstract

"The “motherhood earnings penalty” is a well-established finding in many Western countries. However, a divide between mothers and nonmothers might oversimplify reality given that the family life course has diversified over the last decades. In addition, whether family choices have consequences for women's employment and earnings in later life is not well known, particularly in a comparative perspective. Using data on 50- to 59-year-old women from the Generations and Gender Programme, the British Household Panel Survey, and SHARELIFE for 22 European countries, we derive a typology of women's family trajectories and estimate its association with women's later-life employment and earnings. Whereas family trajectory–related differences with regard to employment were relatively small, our findings reveal a clear, long-lasting family trajectory gradient in earnings. Childless women (with or without a partner) as well as single mothers had higher personal earnings than women whose family trajectories combined parenthood and partnership. Moreover, in societies in which reconciliation of work and family during midlife is less burdensome, labor market outcomes of women following different family trajectories converge. Our findings show that women's fertility and partnership behavior are inevitably interrelated and jointly influence employment and earning patterns until later in life. The results imply that promoting equal employment opportunities could have long-lasting effects on women's economic independence." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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European Institute for Gender Equality (2020): Gender equality index 2020. Digitalisation and the future of work. (Gender equality index …), Vilnius, 178 S. DOI:10.2839/79077

Abstract

"The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic was a wake-up call for gender equality in Europe. It reminded us about everyday gender inequalities in our society that often go unnoticed – from the shortage of men working in the care sector to the reality of violence facing women in abusive relationships. While it will still take time to fully understand the consequences of COVID-19 for gender equality, it’s clear that it poses a serious threat to the fragile achievements made over the past decade. This year, the Index report focuses on the effects of digitalisation on the world of work and the consequences for gender equality. This topic is extremely relevant in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the ways in which the working lives of women and men have been affected by it. New types of jobs and innovative ways of working through online platforms were analysed to gain an understanding of who is doing these jobs and whether they help or hinder gender equality. With a detailed analysis for the EU and each Member State, the Index shows country-level achievements and areas for improvement. More than ever, policymakers need the data that the Index provides. We hope that our findings will help Europe’s leaders to design future solutions that are inclusive and promote gender equality in our post-COVID-19 society." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Aumayr-Pintar, Christine (2019): Parental and paternity leave - Uptake by fathers. Working conditions. (Eurofound ad hoc report), Dublin, 41 S. DOI:10.2806/753240

Abstract

"In the context of ongoing negotiations at EU level on adopting a work - life balance package for families and caregivers, Eurofound was requested by the European Commission to provide an update of the available data regarding paternity and parental leave for fathers. This report presents the currently available national statistics on the uptake of family-related leave by fathers over time across the EU28 and Norway, based on information compiled by the Network of Eurofound Correspondents. It gives a comparative overview of the main features of the various leave arrangements available for fathers, including information on duration, compensation, eligibility and the number of beneficiaries captured in the data. Despite the unevenness and lack of coherent statistics, the report concludes that in several Member States progress has been made in increasing the number and share of fathers who are taking parental or paternity leave." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Beham, Barbara, Sonja Drobnic, Patrick Präg, Andreas Baierl & Janin Eckner (2019): Part-time work and gender inequality in Europe. A comparative analysis of satisfaction with work-life balance. In: European Societies, Jg. 21, H. 3, S. 378-402. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2018.1473627

Abstract

"Part-time work is an increasingly common strategy for handling work and family - but is it an effective strategy everywhere and for everyone? To answer this question, we examine satisfaction with work-life balance (SWLB) of workers in 22 European countries. Our results show that part-time workers have higher SWLB than full-time workers; the more so, the fewer hours they put in. Yet, we find an important gender difference: women in marginal part-time work are more satisfied than men in a similar situation, and conversely men in full-time work have higher SWLB than women working full-time. Further, the societal context plays an important role: substantial part-time work is more conducive to SWLB in more gender-egalitarian countries than in countries with low gender equality. Hence, a supportive gender climate and institutional support may entice workers to reduce working hours moderately, which results in markedly increased levels of SWLB." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))