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Baranowska-Rataj, Anna & Anna Matysiak (2016): The causal effects of the number of children on female employment. Do European institutional and gender conditions matter? In: Journal of labor research, Jg. 37, H. 3, S. 343-367. DOI:10.1007/s12122-016-9231-6

Abstract

"This paper contributes to the discussion on the effects of the number of children on female employment in Europe. Most previous research has either (1) compared these effects across countries, assuming an exogeneity of family size; or (2) used methods that dealt with endogeneity of family size, but that focused on single countries. We combine these two approaches by taking a cross-country comparative perspective and applying quasi-experimental methods. We use instrumental variable models, with multiple births as instruments, and the harmonized data from the European Survey on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC). We examine the cross-country variation in the effects of family size on maternal employment across groups of European countries with different welfare state regimes. This step gives us an opportunity to investigate whether the revealed crosscountry differences in the magnitude of the effect of the family size on maternal employment can be attributed to the diversity of European institutional arrangements, as well as the cultural and the structural conditions for combining work and family duties." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Bičáková, Alena (2016): Gender unemployment gaps in the EU. Blame the family. In: IZA journal of European Labor Studies, Jg. 5, S. 1-31. DOI:10.1186/s40174-016-0072-3

Abstract

"There are considerable differences in gender unemployment gaps across the EU. We use labor force survey data on 21 countries to perform a series of data decompositions and show that the cross-country variation in gender unemployment gaps is primarily driven by the differences in female labor force participation behavior after childbirth, namely, the family leave duration and the subsequent attachment of women to the labor force. Further, in countries where a high share of women permanently withdraw from the labor force after childbirth, the size of gender differences in unemployment strongly correlates with the Eurobarometer measure of perceived overall gender discrimination. Our findings suggest that family leave policies and institutions that facilitate the leave to work transition and the work-family balance are crucial to tackle the gender differences in unemployment in countries where the female unemployment rate exceeds that of men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Boll, Christina, Julian Leppin, Anja Rossen & Andrè-Renè Wolf (2016): Magnitude and impact factors of the gender pay gap in EU countries. Brüssel, 147 S. DOI:10.2838/273601

Abstract

"This study undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the sources of wage differences between male and female workers in Europe. Its main purpose is to shed light on the interplay of so far neglected explanatory factors as well as to reveal country differences in the roles of these factors. One specific point of interest concerns the impact of gender differences in the incidence of overeducation. For this reason, the study also examines, in an introductory module, the determinants of overeducation in Europe. In this way, we make contributions to two different, highly debated subfields in labour economics: the overeducation and the gender pay gap literature. In both fields, the innovative features of the study are the large number of determinants as well as the large number of countries simultaneously analysed. The study is divided into three modules, which build on each other." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Boll, Christina, Anja Rossen & André Wolf (2016): The EU gender earnings gap. Job segregation and working time as driving factors. (IAB-Discussion Paper 36/2016), Nürnberg, 28 S.

Abstract

"In diesem Papier analysieren wir den Umfang und die Determinanten des geschlechtsspezifischen Lohngefälles in Europa. Hierzu aktualisieren wir die bestehenden Ergebnisse in der Literatur anhand des Structure of Earnings Survey 2010 (SES). Auf Basis eines umfassenden Ländervergleichs (21 EU-Länder plus Norwegen) untersuchen wir die Determinanten der erklärten und unerklärten Lohnlücke mit Hilfe der Oaxaca-Blinder-Zerlegung. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass etwa ein Drittel der Lücke auf den Einfluss der verwendeten Variablen zurückzuführen ist. Die sektorale Segregation der Geschlechter wird als das wichtigste Hindernis für die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter bei den Löhnen identifiziert. Darüber hinaus trägt die Tatsache, dass Frauen häufiger Teilzeitstellen bekleiden, signifikant zur Lücke bei. Wir schließen daraus, dass Strategien zur Schließung der Lohnlücke zwischen den Geschlechtern die Branchenebene stärker in den Blick nehmen sollten." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Boll, Christina, Anja Rossen & André Wolf (2016): The EU gender earnings gap. Job segregation and working time as driving factors. (HWWI research paper 176), Hamburg, 25 S.

Abstract

"This paper estimates size and impact factors of the gender pay gap in Europe. It adds to the literature in three aspects. First, we update existing figures on the gender pay gaps in the EU based on the Structure of Earnings Survey 2010 (SES). Second, we enrich the literature by undertaking comprehensive country comparisons of the gap components based on an Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition. Overall, we analyze 21 EU countries plus Norway, which clearly exceeds the scope of existing microdata studies. Third, we examine the sources of the unexplained gap. We find that about one third of the gap can be traced back to the role of the explanatory factors included in our analysis. The sectoral segregation of genders is identified as the most important barrier to gender pay equality in European countries. In addition, the fact that part-time positions are more frequent among women notably contributes to the gap. We conclude that policies aiming at closing the gender pay gap should focus more on the sector level than on the aggregate economy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Breidahl, Karen N. & Christian Albrekt Larsen (2016): The myth of unadaptable gender roles. Attitudes towards women's paid work among immigrants across 30 European countries. In: Journal of European social policy, Jg. 26, H. 5, S. 387-401. DOI:10.1177/0958928716664292

Abstract

"It is a predominant assumption in contemporary political and academic debates that gender roles and attitudes supporting women's paid work among immigrants are deep-rooted and stable over time. However, the actual work - family orientations among immigrants are rarely studied. The purpose of this article is to study to what extent and at what pace immigrants in general adapt to the attitudes towards women's paid work that prevail in the host countries. A cross-national research strategy is applied using the European Social Survey rounds 2 (2004), 4 (2008) and 5 (2010), allowing us to compare and analyse attitudes towards women's paid work among 13,535 foreign-born individuals resident in 30 European countries. The results indicate that immigrants' attitudes towards women's paid work are highly structured by the institutional and cultural context of the host country. Both male and female immigrants, as well as immigrants with and without children, adapt to host country attitudes at a high pace." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bünning, Mareike & Matthias Pollmann-Schult (2016): Parenthood, child care, and nonstandard work schedules in Europe. In: European Societies, Jg. 18, H. 4, S. 295-314. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2016.1153698

Abstract

"An increasing proportion of the European labor force works in the evening, at night or on weekends. Because nonstandard work schedules are associated with a number of negative outcomes for families and children, parents may seek to avoid such schedules. However, for parents with insufficient access to formal child care, working nonstandard hours or days may be an adaptive strategy used to manage child-care needs. It enables 'split-shift' parenting, where parents work alternate schedules, allowing one of the two to be at home looking after the children. This study examines the prevalence of nonstandard work schedules among parents and nonparents in 22 European countries. Specifically, we ask whether the provision of formal child care influences the extent to which parents of preschool-aged children work nonstandard schedules. Using data from the European Social Survey and multilevel models, we find evidence that the availability of formal child care reduces nonstandard work among parents. This indicates that access to formal child care enables parents to work standard schedules. To the extent that nonstandard work schedules are negatively associated with child wellbeing, access to formal child care protects children from the adverse effects of their parents' evening and night work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bünning, Mareike & Matthias Pollmann-Schult (2016): Family policies and fathers' working hours. Cross-national differences in the paternal labour supply. In: Work, employment and society, Jg. 30, H. 2, S. 256-274. DOI:10.1177/0950017015578999

Abstract

"Despite extensive research on the effect of family policies on the labour supply of mothers, little is known about how these policies affect fathers' labour market outcomes. Using European panel data (EU-SILC) from 2003 to 2009 and multi-level models, this study analyses the effect of family policies on fathers' working hours. The results indicate that fathers work less than childless men if they live in countries that offer well paid, non-transferable parental leave for fathers, short parental leave for mothers and generous family allowances. The effects, however, are strongly contingent on fathers' educational levels. Whereas short maternal leaves are associated with shorter working hours among highly educated fathers, generous family allowances and father friendly parental leave schemes reduce the working hours of less educated fathers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Christiansen, Lone, Huidan Lin, Joana Pereira, Petia Topalova & Rima Turk (2016): Individual choice or policies? Drivers of female employment in Europe. (IMF working paper 2016,49), Washington, DC, 44 S.

Abstract

"Female labor force participation has increased markedly in many European countries during the past decades. Nonetheless, participation rates remain low in some economies, and a significant gender gap persists in most countries. Using micro-level data to control for factors that influence personal choice, we re-examine the determinants of female employment in Europe. The results highlight the importance of positive attitudes towards women working and individual characteristics such as years of education and number of children. However, even after controlling for these factors, policies are also key drivers of female employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Davaki, Konstantina (2016): Differences in men's and women's work, care and leisure time. Study for the FEMM committee. Brüssel, 63 S. DOI:10.2861/381996

Abstract

"The economic crisis has profoundly affected the labour market and private life of men and women. This study examines the interrelation of policies with the ways women and men allocate time to paid work, care and leisure and the gendered outcomes produced in different socio-economic and cultural settings. It shows that policies are powerful tools which can contribute to a better work-life balance and transform gender roles in accordance to the targets of EU2020 strategy and EU28 commitment to gender equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Davaki, Konstantina (2016): Demography and family policies. Study for the FEMM committee. Brüssel, 40 S. DOI:10.2861/14530

Abstract

"The European Union is in the midst of three crises: the economic, the demographic and the refugee. This study evaluates policies aiming at increasing fertility through work-life balance, reveals their interrelation with family policies and economic priorities and suggests ways of addressing challenges on all three fronts with the view to minimise their gendered outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Dearing, Helene (2016): Designing gender-equalizing parental leave schemes. What can we learn from recent empirical evidence from Europe? In: Zeitschrift für Familienforschung, Jg. 28, H. 1, S. 38-64.

Abstract

"Der Beitrag erarbeitet eine systematische Literaturanalyse jener empirisch-quantitativen Literatur, die sich mit dem Einfluss von Elternzeit auf eine ausgeglichene Arbeitsaufteilung zwischen Frauen und Männern beschäftigt. Dabei werden jene Studien untersucht, welche 1. Daten aus Europa heranziehen, 2. zwischen Januar 2000 und Mai 2014 durchgeführt, 3. in referierten Zeitschriften publiziert und 4. auf Englisch oder Deutsch verfasst wurden. Die Analyse des Materials erlaubt es, jene Merkmale eines Elternzeitmodells zu identifizieren, welche besonders relevant für eine gleiche Arbeitsaufteilung zwischen Männern und Frauen sind. Erstens ist die Bereitstellung einer mittleren Dauer von Elternzeit besonders wichtig, um die Integration von Frauen auf den Erwerbsarbeitsmarkt zu fördern. Zweitens hat besonders die Einführung eines Elternzeitanspruchs alleine für Väter eine positive Auswirkung auf deren Beteiligung im Bereich der unbezahlten Familienarbeit. Des Weiteren zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass sich der Effekt von Elternzeit auf Frauen in der Erwerbsarbeit je nach dem Bildungs- und Einkommensniveau unterschiedlich gestalten kann." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Fahlén, Susanne (2016): Equality at home - a question of career? Housework, norms, and policies in a European comparative perspective. In: Demographic Research, Jg. 35, S. 1411-1440. DOI:10.4054/DemRes.2016.35.48

Abstract

"Background: Dual-earner families are widespread in contemporary Europe, yet the division of housework is highly gendered, with women still bearing the lion's share. However, women in dual-career couples and in other types of non-traditional couples, across and within different European countries, appear to handle the division of housework differently.
Objective: The objective of this study is to examine the division of housework among various couple-earner types, by determining i) whether relative resources, time spent on paid work, gender attitudes, and family structure reduce variations in housework between different couple types, and ii) whether the division of housework varies between countries with different work-family policies and gender norms.
Methods: The study uses data from ten countries, representing different welfare regime types, extracted from the European Social Survey (2010/11), and employs multivariate regressions and aggregated analysis of the association between the division of housework and the contextual indices.
Results: The results show that dual-career couples divide housework more equally than dual-earner couples, relating more to the fact that the former group of women do less housework in general, rather than that men are doing more. The cross-national analysis shows tangible differences between dual-earner and dual-career couples; however, the difference is less marked with respect to the division of housework in countries with more institutional support for work-family reconciliation and less traditional gender norms.
Contribution: By combining conventional economic and gender-based approaches with an institutional framework, this study contributes to the research field by showing that the division of housework within different couple-earner types is contextually embedded." (Author's abstract, © Max-Planck-Institut für demographische Forschung) ((en))

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Horemans, Jeroen (2016): Polarisation of non-standard employment in Europe. Exploring a missing piece of the inequality puzzle. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 125, H. 1, S. 171-189. DOI:10.1007/s11205-014-0834-0

Abstract

"The rise in non-standard employment inspired many scholars to study the social consequences of these new employment forms. Most research focusses on individuals working non-standard. With the increase in dual earnership, however, we need a household perspective. This study therefore develops the notion of household non-standard employment and applies a polarisation index to examine the distribution of non-standard work over dual earner couples. This polarisation index compares the actual rate of household non-standard employment with a counterfactual rate when non-standard employment would be randomly distributed over households. Drawing on EU-SILC 2011, we define non-standard workers as individuals who worked during the previous year, but not full-year full-time. The results indicate that the levels of polarisation vary considerably across countries. Because especially women do not work full-time, polarisation is highly negative since it is less likely to find clustering of non-standard work within households. This pattern is dominant in Continental European countries, but also observable in Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon countries. On the other hand, in Eastern and Southern European countries, non-standard employment is concentrated in some households, mainly because of the inability of its members to work full-year. Common characteristics of household members known to be associated with non-standard employment, like age and education, explain little of the levels of non-standard employment polarisation." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Jakobsson, Niklas & Andreas Kotsadam (2016): Does marriage affect men's labor market outcomes? A European perspective. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 14, H. 2, S. 373-389. DOI:10.1007/s11150-013-9224-7

Abstract

"Does marriage make men more productive, or do more productive men marry? Previous studies have reached different conclusions but have also been conducted using different methodologies in different countries and in different time periods. We use two sources of European panel data (spanning the years 1994 - 2001 and 2003 - 2007) to assess the relationship between marriage and labor market outcomes. By using data from 12 countries over a 13 year period, we are able to investigate the impact of marriage in different country groups and across time. We find that selection into marriage accounts for most of the differences in hours worked and wages between married and non-married men. With respect to wages we note that while the difference between married and non-married males has increased over time, the actual effect of marriage has disappeared." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Mascherini, Massimiliano, Martina Bisello & Irene Riobóo Lestón (2016): The gender employment gap. Challenges and solutions. (Eurofound research report / European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions), Dublin, 96 S. DOI:10.2806/75749

Abstract

"Women's labour market participation in the European Union has increased over recent decades, passing 70% in 2014. In that year, women comprised almost 46% of the active EU labour market population. Nevertheless, women's employment and participation rates are still lower than those of men in almost all Member States. Fostering higher participation of women is crucial to meet the Europe 2020 target to achieve an overall employment rate of at least 75% by 2020. This report explores the main characteristics and consequences of gender gaps in labour market participation. It finds that the total cost of a lower female employment rate was EURO370 billion in 2013, corresponding to 2.8% of EU GDP. The report also examines policies and measures aimed at fostering female labour market participation, which could be central to closing gender gaps." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Matysiak, Anna & Dorota Weziak-Bialowolska (2016): Country-specific conditions for work and family reconciliation. An attempt at quantification. In: European Journal of Population, Jg. 32, H. 4, S. 475-510. DOI:10.1007/s10680-015-9366-9

Abstract

"The country-specific conditions for work and family reconciliation (family policies, labour market structures and gender norms) are believed to influence tensions between paid employment and childbearing. So far there have been very few attempts to quantify these conditions into a single measure which would allow for comparisons across countries of the magnitude of the barriers that working parents encounter. Such a quantitative index could also facilitate a quantitative investigation of the association between the macro-level conditions for work and family reconciliation and fertility at the individual level. In this paper, we seek to fill this gap by proposing a quantitative index of country-specific conditions for work and family reconciliation, which may be used, for example, in a two-level regression framework. The index takes into account all three components of the conditions for work and family reconciliation. We also perform a series of uncertainty and sensitivity analyses which verify the robustness of our assumptions and which illustrate the range of the index volatility." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Naldini, Manuela, Emmanuele Pavolini & Cristina Solera (2016): Female employment and elderly care: the role of care policies and culture in 21 European countries. In: Work, employment and society, Jg. 30, H. 4, S. 607-630. DOI:10.1177/0950017015625602

Abstract

"To what extent and in what ways do welfare state policies and cultural values affect the employment patterns of mid-life women with care responsibilities toward a frail parent? The study draws on Eurobarometer micro-data integrated with country-level information to respond to this question. Performing a multilevel analysis across 21 European countries, it considers macro factors that influence the decisions of mid-life women to give up or reduce paid work in order to care for a frail elderly parent. The results show that, while the overall level of expenditure on long-term care is not influential, settings characterized by limited formal care services, and strong norms with regard to intergenerational obligations, have a negative impact on women's attachment to the labour market. Policies and cultural factors also influence the extent to which women are polarized: in more defamiliarized countries, regardless of their level of education, female carers rarely reduce their level of employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Piasna, Agnieszka & Anke C. Plagnol (2016): Arbeitsplatzqualität und weibliche Erwerbsbeteiligung in Europa. In: WSI-Mitteilungen, Jg. 69, H. 4, S. 273-282. DOI:10.5771/0342-300X-2016-4-273

Abstract

"Zahlreiche Untersuchungen belegen, dass die Entscheidung zur beruflichen Weiterarbeit nach der Familiengründung einerseits von persönlichen Umständen abhängt, wie der Notwendigkeit, zum Haushaltseinkommen beizutragen, andererseits aber auch von institutionellen Einflussgrößen wie dem Angebot an erschwinglichen Kinderbetreuungsplätzen. Ergänzend hierzu untersuchen wir anhand von Daten des European Working Conditions Surveys, inwieweit die Qualität der Arbeitsplätze die Erwerbsbiografie von Frauen in den EU-27-Ländern beeinflusst. Unsere Analyse betrachtet drei Einzeldimensionen: Arbeitsplatzsicherheit, Arbeitszeitqualität und intrinsische Arbeitsqualität. Wir stellen fest, dass die Arbeitsplatzqualität von Müttern kleiner Kinder im Schnitt höher ist als die von Frauen ohne betreuungspflichtige Kinder, insbesondere hinsichtlich Arbeitszeit und Beschäftigungssicherheit. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse belegen für die gesamte EU-27 einen weitgehend einheitlichen Zusammenhang zwischen dem Status von Frauen als Mütter kleiner Kinder und der Arbeitsplatzqualität." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Pollmann-Schult, Matthias (2016): What mothers want: The impact of structural and cultural factors on mothers' preferred working hours in Western Europe. In: Advances in life course research, Jg. 29, H. September, S. 16-25. DOI:10.1016/j.alcr.2015.11.002

Abstract

"This study investigates how social policies, gender norms, and the national working time regime shape mothers' preferred working hours. Using data from the European Social Survey (ESS) for 15 countries across Western Europe, the study reveals that generous public child care and cultural support for gender equality are associated with smaller gaps in the preferred working hours between mothers and childless women. High levels of financial support for families, in contrast, predict larger gaps in preferred working hours. The analysis also indicates that a low prevalence of non-standard work and high levels of work-time flexibility reduce the differences in preferred employment hours between mothers and non-mothers. Individual characteristics such as education, gender ideology, and the partners' socioeconomic status greatly impact women's preferred employment hours; however, they do not modify the effect of motherhood. This study concludes that the impact of parenthood on women's employment hours is highly contingent upon various institutional and cultural factors." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Schmidt, Jörg (2016): Die Entgeltlücke zwischen Frauen und Männern im internationalen Vergleich. Empirische Befunde auf Basis des EU-SILC. (IW-Report / Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft Köln 2016,16), Köln, 37 S.

Abstract

"Die vorliegende Studie untersucht die Entlohnungsunterschiede zwischen Frauen und Männern auf internationaler Ebene. Ihr Ziel bestand darin, auf Basis neuer empirischer Befunde für die Jahre 2009 bis 2013 die sonst übliche Analyse struktureller Ursachen zu erweitern und aufzuzeigen, welche Zusammenhänge zu institutionellen Regelungen bestehen und inwieweit vor dem Hintergrund der vorliegenden Ergebnisse staatliche Eingriffe überhaupt gerechtfertigt erscheinen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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International Labour Office (2016): Global wage report 2016/17. Wage inequality in the workplace. (Global wage report 05), Genf, 114 S.

Abstract

"The 2016/17 edition examines inequality at the workplace level, providing empirical evidence on the extent to which wage inequality is the result of wage inequality between enterprises as well as within enterprises. The report also includes a review of key policy issues regarding wages." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Anttila, Timo, Tomi Oinas, Mia Tammelin & Jouko Nätti (2015): Working-time regimes and work-life balance in Europe. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 31, H. 6, S. 713-724. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcv070

Abstract

"The organization of times and places of work are key elements of working conditions, and define employees' possibilities for balancing work and other life spheres. This study analyses several aspects of temporal and spatial flexibility, and their associations with employees' work-life balance. This study separates four dimensions of temporal flexibility and one indicator of spatial flexibility. The dimensions of temporal flexibility are the number of hours worked, when the hours are worked, work-time intensity, and the degree of working-time autonomy. The workplace flexibility indicator is an index of work locations. Work-life balance is analysed with work-hour fit. The analyses were based on the fifth wave of the European Working Conditions Survey collected in 2010. We used data from 25 Member States of the European Union (n?=?25,417). Based on the hierarchical cluster analysis, this study found various types of flexibility regimes in Europe. Country clusters show a clear effect on perceived work-life balance even after controlling for flexibility measurements at the individual level. This study contributes to the existing research in analysing several dimensions of temporal and spatial flexibility at the same time, as well as their associations to work-life balance." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Betti, Gianni, Francesca Bettio, Thomas Georgiadis & Platon Tinios (2015): Unequal ageing in Europe. Women's independence and pensions. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 187 S. DOI:10.1057/9781137384102

Abstract

While much is known about the situation in the labour market in the form of gender pay and earnings gaps, rather little is understood about their sequel in old age the gender pension gap. Entering the world of pensions may well signal a step backwards as far as women's independence is concerned, particularly in countries where women have earned economic independence in employment and are now being confronted by institutional frameworks presuming, encouraging or even imposing dependence. Unequal Ageing in Europe explores the gender pension gap across the member states of the European Union, plus Iceland and Norway. Employing microdata from the Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC), along with data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), the authors derive key facts regarding pension inequality between women and men. An intuitive indicator for a pension gender gap is derived and contrasted with equivalent indicators for pay and earnings gaps. The authors explore European diversity in a number of dimensions and benchmark their findings against equivalent findings in the US.

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Figueiredo, Hugo, Vera Rocha, Ricardo Biscaia & Pedro Teixeira (2015): Gender pay gaps and the restructuring of graduate labour markets in Southern Europe. In: Cambridge Journal of Economics, Jg. 39, H. 2, S. 565-598. DOI:10.1093/cje/bev008

Abstract

"In this article we investigate whether education-job mismatches and growing occupational diversity are important explanatory factors of gender pay gaps amongst university graduates in Southern Europe (namely in Portugal, Spain, and Italy). We use standard decomposition techniques and test the implications of controlling for selection bias. Our results indicate that over-education and greater occupational segregation associated with the emergence of new graduate job profiles are important determinants of earnings inequality. Whilst our focus is on graduates' early careers, demonstrating that occupational assignment and selection into employment shape gender pay gaps amongst the highly skilled provides a more pessimistic view on the ability of educational expansion or equal pay legislation to significantly reduce gender pay inequality. Southern European economies are also particularly interesting to look at since there may be a greater degree of mismatch between the pace of higher education expansion and the changes in the job structure, making women particularly vulnerable to over-education." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gehringer, Agnieszka & Stephan Klasen (2015): Labor force participation of women in the EU - What role do family policies play? (Discussion papers, Center for European, Governance and Economic Development Research 242), Göttingen, 30 S.

Abstract

"We empirically study the role of different family policies in determining women┐s labor market behavior in the countries of the European Union between 1997 and 2008. Women tend to assume more family duties than men and, consequently, often participate less in the labor market. At the same time, family policies are to provide support to families while also helping women to reconcile family duties with labor market participation. Their impact, however, is not clear, especially when it comes to different forms of labor market activity. We use a static and dynamic panel econometric framework examining the link between four types of family policies and labor force participation and (part-time and full-time) employment. The results suggest no stable significant impact of any on overall labor force, but higher spending on family allowance, cash benefits daycare benefits appears to promote part-time employment, whereas only spending on parental leave schemes is a significant determinant of women's full-time employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kalísková, Klára (2015): Tax and transfer policies and female labor supply in the EU. (EUROMOD working paper 2015,01), Cambridge, 30 S.

Abstract

"This study contributes to the female labor supply responsiveness literature by measuring the effect of tax-benefit policies on female labor supply based on a broad sample of 26 European countries in 2005-2010. The tax-benefit microsimulation model EUROMOD is used to calculate a measure of work incentives at the extensive margin-the participation tax rate, which is then used as the main explanatory variable in a female employment equation. This allows me to deal with the endogeneity of income in a new way by using a simulated instrumental variable based on a fixed EU-wide sample of women. Results suggest that a 10 percentage point increase in the participation tax rate decreases the female employment probability by 2 percentage points. The effect is higher for single mothers, for women in the middle of the skills distribution, and in countries that have lower rates of female employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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O'Reilly, Jacqueline, Mark Smith, Simon Deakin & Brendan Burchell (2015): Equal pay as a moving target. International perspectives on forty-years of addressing the gender pay gap. In: Cambridge Journal of Economics, Jg. 39, H. 2, S. 299-317. DOI:10.1093/cje/bev010

Abstract

"This paper provides an overview of the key factors impacting upon the gender pay gap in the UK, Europe and Australia. Forty years after the implementation of the first equal pay legislation, the pay gap remains a key aspect of the inequalities women face in the labour market. While the overall pay gap has tended to fall in many countries over the past forty years, it has not closed; in some countries it has been stubbornly resistant, or has even widened. In reviewing the collection of papers that make up this special issue we identify four broad themes with which to group the contributions and draw out the explanations for diverse trends: theoretical and conceptual debates; legal developments and their impacts; wage setting institutions and changing employer demands; and newly emerging pay inequalities between and within educational and ethnic groups. Across the four themes we underline how the trends in the gender pay gap capture the dynamism of inequalities, as the market power of different groups and stakeholders changes over times. Three key dimensions emerge from the papers to provide a framework for future research and policy discourse: the relationship between litigation and bargaining strategies; the interaction between wage-setting institutions and new organisational practices; and the increasing and range of diversity or equality strands competing for equal treatment. We conclude that progress towards closing the gender pay gap will not be easy, will require a collective effort of various actors, and will not be quick." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Perugini, Cristiano & Ekaterina Selezneva (2015): Labour market institutions, crisis and gender earnings gap in Eastern Europe. In: The economics of transition, Jg. 23, H. 3, S. 517-564. DOI:10.1111/ecot.12072

Abstract

We study gender pay inequality in ten Central and Eastern EU countries before (2007) and during the economic crisis (2009) using quantile regression methods. The analysis reveals remarkable cross-country diversity in levels and patterns of the gender gap along the earnings distribution; for the majority of the countries the crisis is associated with declining male/female disparities. We address the role played by labour market institutions in shaping the observed gender pay gap levels and patterns. Labour market deregulation increases gender inequality at the middle and at the top of the pay distribution, but reduces disparities at the bottom. Higher union density and wage coordination reduce the pay gap, with stronger equalizing effects on better-paid jobs. The crisis seems to weaken the already poor role of institutions in the low-pay sector.

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Peruzzi, Marco (2015): Contradictions and misalignments in the EU approach towards the gender pay gap. In: Cambridge Journal of Economics, Jg. 39, H. 2, S. 441-465. DOI:10.1093/cje/bev007

Abstract

"The aim of this paper is to highlight the tensions within the EU's 'governance architecture' concerning pay equality. Specifically, after a preliminary outline of the theoretical discussion on the EU's new/old governance, the analysis focuses on two empirical fields. The first one enables an assessment of the contradictions between old and new governance in EU equal pay policy. This analysis highlights the inconsistencies between the architecture of the antidiscrimination framework, established following the EU's old governance-by-law approach, and the assessment of equal pay public policy measures in the context of the EU's new governance-by-numbers approach. To this extent, the problems related to the political use of the unadjusted gender pay gap (GPG) indicator are pointed out. The second empirical field enables an assessment of the tensions within the EU's new governance system itself, specifically between the approach in the area of equal pay and in the area of economic policy, with specific regard to the participatory role of the social partners in tackling the GPG. If the role of the social partners is emphasised in several policy documents, the potentialities of their action are seriously jeopardised by the push for decentralisation of collective bargaining, aimed at anchoring wages to productivity, fostered by the EU's governance reforms responding to the crisis, in particular by the Euro Plus Pact and by the 'six-pack' regulations of 2011. As the paper finally remarks, both empirical fields of investigation confirm a narrowing down of pay equality in the context of an EU flexibility-centred and neoliberalist political perspective." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Piasna, Agnieszka & Anke Plagnol (2015): Job quality and women's labour market participation. (European Trade Union Institute. Policy brief 2015,06), Brüssel, 5 S.

Abstract

"This Policy Brief provides an overview of female employment in the EU and of how it is affected by a transition to motherhood, as well as of recent policies devised to remedy the post-2008 unemployment crisis.
It also investigates the link between job quality and women's employment patterns. The study concludes that the EU should concentrate on putting job quality back on to the policy agenda, e.g. through increased use of employment indicators, in particular job quality indicators, in the process of monitoring social and employment developments." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Pronzato, Chiara Daniela & Giuseppe Sorrenti (2015): When context does matter. Childcare and maternal employment. Trying to solve the puzzle. In: CESifo DICE report, Jg. 13, H. 1, S. 3-8.

Abstract

"This paper reviews the recent literature on childcare provision and maternal employment, and uses simple statistics to show this relationship across European countries and regions. In particular, it studies how the association between childcare availability and mothers' labour market participation may vary across different European contexts. Studies using data from Nordic countries - where levels of female market participation are relatively high - tend to find smaller effects of childcare provision than studies using data from Southern countries. The same relationship has been found at a micro-level: focusing on Italy, a country characterised by low female work participation, we have found that childcare availability is more crucial to less labour-attached mothers. This result is in line with studies which find that family policies are particularly important for less educated women (Del Boca, Pasqua and Pronzato 2009; Pronzato 2009)." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Schäfer, Andrea & Karin Gottschall (2015): From wage regulation to wage gap. How wage-setting institutions and structures shape the gender wage gap across three industries in 24 European countries and Germany. In: Cambridge Journal of Economics, Jg. 39, H. 2, S. 467-496. DOI:10.1093/cje/bev005

Abstract

"Whilst a common and persisting feature of advanced market economies, the gender wage gap nevertheless varies across countries. Amongst the factors affecting this wage gap, industrial relations and industry differences still require further research. Using data from EU-SILC in 25 European countries, this article analyses how national wage-setting institutions impact wage differences between male and female full-time employees in three distinct industries. Complementing the country comparison is an in-depth study of the German case using data from the German Linked Employer-Employee Database, shedding light on the interaction of industry- specific wage-setting regulations and gender equity in living wages. Findings from the international comparison suggest a substantial gender wage gap for fulltime employees across industries with specific country patterns. Country patterns seem to be due to the overall influence of trade unions and the relationship between pay bargaining strategies and specific minimum wage policies. The German case adds to these findings by analysing the impact of sectoral models of wage bargaining for industry-specific gender wage gaps, focussing on living wages for skilled full-time employees." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Troger, Tobias & Roland Verwiebe (2015): The role of education for poverty risks revisited. Couples, employment and profits from work-family policies. In: Journal of European social policy, Jg. 25, H. 3, S. 286-302. DOI:10.1177/0958928715589068

Abstract

"This article explores the specific effects of work-related family policies on poverty risks among various educational groups. Based on European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) data (2005 - 2010) and policy indicators drawn from the Multilinks project, we estimated a series of multilevel models for approximately 123,000 households with children below the age of 6?years in 25 European countries. The results emphasize clear education-specific differences and thus are essential for the ongoing social-policy discourse. Interestingly, with respect to infant childcare, the strongest poverty-reducing effect was identified among women with mid-level education and their families, followed by low-educated women. In contrast, full-time care for children aged 3 - 5?years reduced the poverty risk only among women with mid- and high-level education and their families, whereas a medium length of well-paid parental leave was observed to be of particular importance to low-qualified mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Zagheni, Emilio, Marina Zannella, Gabriel Movsesyan & Brittney Wagner (2015): A comparative analysis of European time transfers between generations and genders. (SpringerBriefs in population studies), Dordrecht: Springer London, 48 S. DOI:10.1007/978-94-017-9591-3

Abstract

"This comparative study of European time transfers reveals the full extent of transfers in the form of unpaid work and highlights the existence of important gender differences in household time production. A large quantity of goods and services are produced by household members for their own consumption, without involving market transactions. Despite the economic and social importance of unpaid work, these productive activities are largely invisible to traditional national economic accounts. As a consequence, standard measures of intergenerational transfers typically ignore household production, and thus underestimate the overall value of goods and services produced over the life cycle; in particular, the economic contribution of females. The book uses a life course approach to offer policy-relevant insights into the effect of demographic and social change on intergenerational ties and gender inequality in household production." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Women have made many gains in access to education, and it follows that they have increased access to employment. Today, a third of the world's enterprises are run by women, and their management skills are increasingly recognized as well. There is more and more evidence that achieving gender balanced and diverse management teams at all levels in the hierarchy produces positive business outcomes. Yet age-old gender stereotypes still overshadow women's contribution to businesses. Top of the list of stereotypes across all social and cultural contexts is their ability to balance work and family responsibilities.
Women business owners are mostly concentrated in small and micro businesses. Still less than 5 per cent of CEOs of the largest global corporations are women. The higher up the corporate ladder and the larger the organization, the fewer the women. The 'glass ceiling' is still intact. Women are succeeding as high-level administrators, human resources and public relations managers. But 'glass walls' prevent them taking up strategic management positions leading to the top. Companies are losing out on women's contribution to their bottom line. Women in Business and Management: Gaining Momentum brings together all available data including ILO statistics to provide a comprehensive, up-to-date and global picture on women in the business world and in management positions. It highlights not only the obstacles women still face but also the business case for gender diversity and offers recommendations on the way forward." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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European Institute for Gender Equality (2015): Gender equality index 2015. Measuring gender equality in the European Union 2005-2012. Report. (Gender equality index), Vilnius, 189 S. DOI:10.2839/763764

Abstract

"The Gender Equality Index provides a comprehensive measure of gender equality, tailored to fit the EU policy context. Following the importance of cohesion across EU Member States, the Gender Equality Index ensures that higher gender equality scores can only be obtained in societies where there are small gender gaps and high levels of achievement.
The present update includes scores for 2005, 2010 and 2012, for the first time allowing for an assessment of the progress made in the pursuit of gen¡der equality in the European Union and individual Member States over time. Moreover, the present update makes a first attempt at populating the satellite domain of violence by providing a composite indicator of direct violence against women, based on the data on violence against women collected by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights through the EU-wide Survey on Violence against Women.
The results of the Gender Equality Index show that there have been visible, albeit marginal, improvements between 2005 and 2012 in the domains covered by the Gender Equality Index. With an overall score of 52.9 out of 100 in 2012, the EU remains only halfway towards equality, having risen from 51.3 in 2005. Progress needs to increase its pace if the EU is to fulfil its ambitions and meet the Europe 2020 targets." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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International Labour Office (2015): Global wage report 2014/15. Wage and income inequality. (Global wage report 04), Genf, 114 S.

Abstract

"The Global Wage Report analyses the evolution of real wages around the world, giving a unique picture of wage trends and relative purchasing power globally and by region. The 2014/15 edition examines the link between wages and inequality at the household level. It shows that wages constitute the largest single source of income for households with at least one member of working age in most countries and points to changes in wages and paid employment as key factors underlying recent trends in inequality. The report also considers wage gaps between certain groups, such as those between women and men, migrants and nationals, and workers in the informal and formal economy. Inequality can be addressed through policies that affect wage distribution directly or indirectly, as well as through fiscal redistribution. However, increasing inequality in the labour market places a heavier burden on efforts to reduce inequality through taxes and transfers. The report thus emphasizes the need for combined policy action that includes minimum wages, strengthened collective bargaining, interventions to eliminate wage gaps, the promotion of paid employment and redistribution through taxes and transfers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Statistics and indicators that reflect the realities of the lives of women and men are needed to describe women's and men's role in the society, economy and family, to formulate and monitor policies and plans, monitor changes, and inform the public. In 2010, the Conference of European Statisticians (CES) established the Task Force on Indicators of Gender Equality, to improve the monitoring of gender equality in the UNECE region by consolidating and systematizing gender-relevant statistical indicators.
This publication contains the result of the work of that Task Force, which was endorsed by CES in October 2014. It presents a set of 115 gender equality indicators recommended for use in countries participating in the work of CES. The indicators are grouped in eight thematic domains inspired by the Beijing Platform for Action and categorized into 42 headline indicators and 73 supporting indicators. The selection is based on the consideration of policy needs, main existing international indicator frameworks, relevance to the measurement of gender equality and international availability." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Europäische Kommission. Generaldirektion Justiz und Verbraucher (2015): Report on equality between women and men 2014. (Report on equality between women and men), Brüssel, 60 S.

Abstract

"The Report on equality between women and men 2014 presents the latest figures illustrating the most recent developments. The report presents key EU actions on gender equality, which combine legislation, policy measures and funding. It includes projects at national and grass-roots level, highlighting the joint efforts by the EU and its Member States. In line with its obligations under the treaties, the EU promotes gender equality in all its activities, from education to work, from research to external policy." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Aumayr-Pintar, Christine, Jorge Cabrita, Enrique Fernández-Macías & Carlos Vacas-Soriano (2014): Pay in Europe in the 21st century. Dublin, 173 S. DOI:10.2806/49345

Abstract

"The issue of wages has attracted particular attention at European level since the onset of the economic crisis. Changes in economic governance, notably within the European semester, have prompted discussions on wage-setting mechanisms. While, overall, wage-bargaining regimes have remained relatively stable over time in many countries, the most substantial changes were seen in Member States facing more difficult economic circumstances. This report provides comparative time series on wage-bargaining outcomes across the EU Member States and Norway, discussing pay developments against the background of different wage-bargaining regimes and looks into the link between pay and productivity developments. It also investigates the different systems and levels of minimum wages in Europe at present, carrying out an accounting exercise through a hypothetical scenario of a minimum wage set at 60% of the median national wage (with some alternative scenarios as well for comparison) in order to benchmark and evaluate minimum wage levels and systems in Europe, and to discuss the possibilities and difficulties of coordination in this matter." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Burchell, Brendan, Vincent Hardy, Jill Rubery & Mark Smith (2014): A new method to understand occupational gender segregation in European labour markets. Brüssel, 161 S. DOI:10.2838/748887

Abstract

"Dieser Bericht stellt eine neue Art der Darstellung von Geschlechtersegregation nach Berufen vor. Die Untersuchungen zeigen, dass die Art des Berufes eine wichtig Rolle spielt, unabhängig davon, ob der Beruf männer- oder frauendominiert oder gemischt ist, ob es sich um Arbeiter oder Angestellte handelt. In diesem Bericht zeigen wir, dass nicht nur das Geschlecht der Arbeitnehmer sondern auch die 'Gender'eigenschaften des Berufes selbst - männerdominiert, frauendominiert oder gemischt - zu verschiedenen beruflichen Erfahrungen beitragen können." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Castellano, Rosalia & Antonella Rocca (2014): Gender gap and labour market participation. A composite indicator for the ranking of European countries. In: International journal of manpower, Jg. 35, H. 3, S. 345-367. DOI:10.1108/IJM-07-2012-0107

Abstract

"The measurement and comparison across countries of female conditions in labour market and gender gap in employment is a very complex task, given both its multidimensional nature and the different scenarios in terms of economic, social and cultural characteristics. The paper aims to discuss these issues. At this aim, different information about presence and engagement of women in labour market, gender pay gap, segregation, discrimination and human capital characteristics was combined and a ranking of 26 European countries is proposed through the composite indicator methodology. It satisfies the need to benchmark national gender gaps, grouping together economic, political and educational dimensions. The results show that female conditions in labour market are the best in Scandinavian countries and Ireland while many Eastern and Southern European countries result at the bottom of classification." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cipollone, Angela, Eleonora Patacchini & Giovanna Vallanti (2014): Female labour market participation in Europe. Novel evidence on trends and shaping factors. In: IZA journal of European Labor Studies, Jg. 3, S. 1-40. DOI:10.1186/2193-9012-3-18

Abstract

"We investigate the changes in women's participation patterns across 15 EU countries over the last 20 years using individual data from ECHP and EUSILC databases. Our findings show that the observed trends in female participation differ substantially both across countries and across different groups of women. We explore such heterogeneity in trends by looking at the effects of policies and labour market institutional factors on the participation of women with different family and individual characteristics. Our estimates reveal a role of policies and institutions that is stronger than what has so far been assessed. Labour market institutions and family-oriented policies explain almost 25% of the actual increase in labour force participation for young women, and more than 30% for highly educated women. Surprisingly, changes in the institutional and policy settings contribute less in explaining the participation of low-skilled women. We also find that reforming the institutional framework towards a model of 'flexicure' labour market is effective in enhancing women labour supply only when deregulation is accompanied by sufficient social compensation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Salladarré, Frédéric & Stephane Hlaimi (2014): Women and part-time work in Europe. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 153, H. 2, S. 293-310. DOI:10.1111/j.1564-913X.2014.00205.x

Abstract

"This article examines female part-time employment in 23 European countries, distinguishing between 'short' and 'long' part-time employment. The short form, defined as less than 20 hours per week, is associated with the youngest and oldest age groups, slight disability, a higher number of children, lower skill levels, and employment in community, social and personal services. Although the incidence of part-time employment varies considerably across countries, long part-time employment is generally more widespread than short part-time employment, albeit with matching cross-country variations in the incidence of the two types. This suggests that they are complementary, rather than substitutes for one another." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sparreboom, Theo (2014): Gender equality, part-time work and segregation in Europe. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 150, H. 2, S. 245-268. DOI:10.1111/j.1564-913X.2014.00204.x

Abstract

"This article shows how both segregation by sex and segregation by hours shape the occupational space of part-time workers. The level of segregation by sex varies according to the shares of full-time and part-time work in total employment, and the trade-off between increasing the volume of female employment and decreasing segregation by sex is much stronger for full-time work. The author argues that there is less segregation by sex in part-time work than in full-time work; it is the gap between the volume of male and female part-time employment that determines the effect of part-time work an segregation in total employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sándor, Eszter, Daphne Ahrendt & Rachel Kuenzi (2014): Third European quality of life survey. Quality of life in Europe: Families in the economic crisis. Dublin, 76 S. DOI:10.2806/49619

Abstract

"The economic crisis has reshaped the lives of millions of European citizens. But how has it affected families with children? Children are more at risk of poverty or social exclusion than the overall population in a large majority of EU countries; hence, it is important to understand how the crisis has affected the households in which these children grow up. This report describes the changing quality of life across the EU for different types of families with children and compares their living standards and social situation. Grouping the EU Member States into four categories on the basis of the flexibility or otherwise of their family policies, it also examines potential patterns that may be related to different family policy approaches. Themes that emerge from the findings include the particular challenges facing lone parents, the greater difficulties facing jobless families since the onset of the crisis, and the increasing extent of conflict parents experience in seeking to balance their work and family lives." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ahrendt, Daphne, Robert Anderson, Jean-Marie Jungblut, Daniel Molinuevo, Eszter Sándor, Adi Buxbaum & Sybille Pirklbauer (2013): Caring for children and dependants. Effect on careers of young workers. Dublin, 11 S.

Abstract

"This background paper aims to give an overview of the effects that the lack of childcare and care facilities for other dependants has on the career choices and situation of young men and women in the labour market, with a particular focus on the effects of the crisis on the accessibility of those services. The paper was prepared on request from the European Parliament for expert input on the effects of caring for children and other dependants on the employability of young men and women. It includes an analysis of the data from Eurofound's third European Quality of Life Survey of 2011 (EQLS), the 2013 European Labour Force Survey (LFS) and the 2011 Eurobarometer survey." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Anxo, Dominique, Christine Franz & Angelika Kümmerling (2013): Working time and work-life balance in a life course perspective. A report based on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey. Dublin, 72 S.

Abstract

"Understanding how working time is organised and how this is impacting on balance of work versus private life is of fundamental importance. This general statement is very much in accordance with the main objective of the Europe 2020 employment strategy, stating that at least 75% of the population aged 20 - 64 should be employed by 2020, necessitating in many Member States a significant increase in women's labour market participation. Drawing on data from Eurofound's fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), based on interviews with more than 38,000 respondents in 34 countries, this report documents the prevailing working time patterns of employees, the self-employed and lone parents across five country clusters. It also analyses the relationship between paid employment and domestic activities, work - life balance and working time preferences across the life course." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bettio, Francesca, Platon Tinios & Gianni Betti (2013): The gender gap in pensions in the EU. Brüssel, 136 S. DOI:10.2838/43810

Abstract

"Renten sind ein wichtiger Bestimmungsfaktor der wirtschaftlichen Unabhängigkeit ihrer Empfänger. Wenn man die wirtschaftliche Unabhängigkeit von Personen im erwerbsfähigen Alter betrachtet, denkt man unwillkürlich an geschlechtsspezifische Lohngefälle. Die Auseinandersetzung mit geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnunterschieden müsste eigentlich auch zu einer besonderen Aufmerksamkeit auf Einkommensgefälle bei Renten führen. Diese Gefälle müssten die kumulierten Nachteile einer beruflichen Laufbahn in Arbeitsmärkten wiederspiegeln, in denen die Bedingungen für Frauen und Männer ungleich sind. Das gilt umso mehr für ältere Kohorten. Rentensysteme reflektieren diese Unterschiede nicht eins zu eins, sondern können sie durch die Belohnung von Sparsamkeit verstärken oder infolge entsprechender sozialpolitischer Entscheidungen abfedern." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)