Zitatform

Aavik, Kadri, Pille Ubakivi-Hadachi, Maaris Raudsepp & Triin Roosalu (2024): The gender pay gap—What's the problem represented to be? Analyzing the discourses of Estonian employers, employees, and state officials on pay equality. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 31, H. 1, S. 171-191. DOI:10.1111/gwao.13061

Abstract

"The gender pay gap (GPG) remains significant in most countries and is a key indicator of gender inequality in society. Qualitative research on the GPG is scarce, yet, qualitative perspectives on the GPG are valuable as the ways in which the GPG is understood and talked about shape actions to tackle it. This article focuses on how the GPG is represented in the context of work and organizations, inspired by the “What's the Problem Represented to be?” approach, developed by Carol Bacchi. The analysis draws on qualitative data—63 interviews with employers, employees, and state officials—collected in Estonia which exhibits one of the largest GPGs in the European Union. Five dominant representations of the GPG were identified: the GPG as (a) consciously produced by employers, (b) different pay for the same work, (c) unmeasurable due to “unique” and “incomparable” jobs and workers, (d) produced by women's failure to ask for fair pay, and (e) impossible for employers to reduce because of market forces. Collectively, these representations render the GPG inevitable, downplaying its emergence as a result of specific gendered social practices. This has implications for the employers' and the state's willingness and strategies to reduce the GPG." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

Zitatform

Abrahams, Scott (2024): An analysis of the gender layoff gap implied by a gender gap in wage bargaining. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 234. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111505

Abstract

"The assumption that wage bargaining power is greater for men than for women yields a novel, mechanical implication regarding the gender wage gap: there should also be a gender layoff gap. If women with the same marginal product of labor as men exercise less bargaining power and consequently earn lower wages, then female workers should on average be more profitable for a firm. When conditions reduce labor demand, the firm should therefore prefer to lay off its male workers first. I show that this is consistent with the data for the United States from 1982–2019. A calibration exercise based on the gender gap in layoff rates suggests that the female bargaining share has risen from 14% lower to 6% lower than the male share over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))

Zitatform

Averkamp, Dorothée, Christian Bredemeier & Falko Juessen (2024): Decomposing gender wage gaps: a family economics perspective. In: The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, Jg. 126, H. 1, S. 3-37. DOI:10.1111/sjoe.12542

Abstract

"We propose a simple way to embed family-economics arguments for pay differences between genders into standard decomposition techniques. To account appropriately for the role of the family in the determination of wages, one has to compare men and women with similar own characteristics – and with similar partners. In US survey data, we find that our extended decomposition explains considerably more of the wage gap than a standard approach, in line with our theory that highlights the role of career prioritization in dual-earner couples." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

Zitatform

Casarico, Alessandra & Salvatore Lattanzio (2024): What Firms Do: Gender Inequality in Linked Employer-Employee Data. In: Journal of labor economics, Jg. 42, H. 2, S. 325-355. DOI:10.1086/723177

Abstract

"We study the extent to which employer heterogeneity affects gender gaps in earnings across the distribution, over time, and over the life cycle, accounting for cohort effects. Using a linked employer-employee dataset for Italy, we show that the gender gap in firm pay premia explains 34 percent of the mean gender pay gap, mainly due to between-firm components. Within-firm differences are more important at the top of the distribution, and have become more relevant over time. Gender differences in mobility towards firms with higher pay premia and within-firm gender inequality partly explain the gender gap in firm pay premia" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Collischon, Matthias & Florian Zimmermann (2024): Der Equal Pay Day unter der Lupe: Die Lohnlücke zwischen Männern und Frauen unterscheidet sich je nach Region erheblich. In: IAB-Forum H. 04.03.2024. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20240304.01

Abstract

"Am 6. März ist der deutsche Equal Pay Day. Er zeigt an, wie viele Tage Frauen im Durchschnitt zusätzlich arbeiten müssten, um das durchschnittliche Gehalt von Männern zu erreichen. Bei genauerer Betrachtung werden jedoch erhebliche regionale Unterschiede deutlich. So wäre der Equal Pay Day in Sachsen-Anhalt rechnerisch bereits am 13. Januar gewesen, in Baden-Württemberg wäre er jedoch erst am 8. April." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Destefanis, Sergio, Fernanda Mazzotta & Lavinia Parisi (2024): Goldin's Last Chapter on the Gender Pay Gap: An Exploratory Analysis Using Italian Data. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 38, H. 2, S. 549-572. DOI:10.1177/09500170221143724

Abstract

"This article explores the application to Italy of Goldin’s hypothesis that the unexplained gender pay gap is crucially linked to firms’ incentive to disproportionately reward individuals who work long and particular hours. The study draws mainly on Italian responses to the 2014 European Structure of Earnings Survey for data on earnings and the individual characteristics of employees and their employer, but also uses data from the Occupational Information Network and the Italian Sample Survey on Professions to measure characteristics reflecting the work context within occupations. For graduate and non-graduate workers, the results reveal a positive relationship between various measures of the unexplained gender pay gap and the elasticity of earnings with respect to work hours. For graduate workers, in accordance with Goldin’s hypothesis, both these variables are correlated with the occupational characteristics that impose earnings penalties on workers seeking more workplace flexibility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Elass, Kenza (2024): Male and female selection effects on gender wage gaps in three countries. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 87. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2024.102506

Abstract

"A vast literature on gender wage gaps has examined the importance of selection into employment. However, most analyses have focused only on female labor force participation and gaps at the median. The Great Recession questions this approach because of the major shift in male employment that it implied. This paper uses the methodology proposed by Arellano and Bonhomme (2017) to estimate a quantile selection model over the period 2007–2018. Using a tax and benefit microsimulation model, I compute an instrument capturing both male and female decisions to participate in the labor market: the potential out-of-work income. Since my instrument is crucially determined by the welfare state, I consider three countries with notably different benefit systems – the UK, France and Finland. My results imply different selection patterns across countries and a sizeable male selection in France and the UK. Correction for selection bias lowers the gender wage gap and reveals a substantial glass ceiling with different magnitudes. Findings suggest that disparities between these countries are driven by occupational segregation and public spending on families." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))

Zitatform

Fitzenberger, Bernd, Anna Houštecká & Alexander Patt (2024): Unterschiede in den Jahresverdiensten zwischen Männern und Frauen: Der Gender Pay Gap wurde in der Coronakrise kleiner - außer bei niedrigen Verdiensten. (IAB-Kurzbericht 01/2024), Nürnberg, 8 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.KB.2401

Abstract

"Die Geschlechterunterschiede in den Jahresverdiensten (Gender Pay Gap) spiegeln Unterschiede sowohl im Stundenlohn als auch in der Arbeitszeit und der Beschäftigungswahrscheinlichkeit wider. Je nach Verdienstniveau vor der Coronakrise waren Männer und Frauen von der Krise unterschiedlich betroffen: Während die Frauen mit mittleren und hohen Jahresverdiensten im Vergleich zu den Männern zwischen 2019 und 2021 aufholten, erfuhren die Frauen mit den niedrigsten Verdiensten deutlich stärkere Verluste als die Männer. In dem Kurzbericht wird untersucht, wie sich die Coronakrise auf die Jahresverdienste der Frauen und Männer insgesamt ausgewirkt hat und wie sich der Gender Pay Gap je nach Höhe der Verdienste und nach Beschäftigungsform (Vollzeit, Teilzeit, Minijob) entwickelt hat. Außerdem werden Übergangsraten zwischen den verschiedenen Beschäftigungsformen betrachtet." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Fuchs, Michaela, Anja Rossen & Antje Weyh (2024): Regionale Unterschiede im Gender Pay Gap in Deutschland 2022. (Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung. Aktuelle Daten und Indikatoren), Nürnberg, 18 S.

Abstract

"Dass Frauen in Deutschland weniger verdienen als Männer, gilt gemeinhin als bekannt. Die nationale Betrachtung verdeckt jedoch große Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Regionen. Im Folgenden zeigen wir diese regionalen Unterschiede im so genannten Gender Pay Gap (GPG) auf. Datengrundlage bildet hierbei der nominale Lohn (brutto), den sozialversicherungspflichtig Vollzeitbeschäftigte zum Stichtag 30.06.2022 in einer bestimmten Region verdient haben. Dass Frauen häufiger in Teilzeit arbeiten als Männer, ist also für diese Kennziffer irrelevant." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Gamage, Danula K., Georgios Kavetsos, Sushanta Mallick & Almudena Sevilla (2024): Pay transparency intervention and the gender pay gap: Evidence from research-intensive universities in the UK. In: BJIR, Jg. 62, H. 2, S. 293-318. DOI:10.1111/bjir.12778

Abstract

"This study investigates the impact of a pay transparency intervention in reducing the gender pay gap in the UK university sector. Introduced in 2007, the initiative enabled public access to average annual earnings disaggregated by gender in UK universities. We use a detailed matched employee-employer administrative dataset that follows individuals over time, allowing us to adopt a quasi-experimental approach based on event studies around the intervention. We find that the earnings of female academics increased by around 0.62 percentage points compared to their male counterparts as the control group, whose earnings remained constant after the pay transparency intervention, reducing the gender pay gap by 4.37 per cent. Further evidence suggests that the main mechanism for the fall in the pay gap is driven by female employees negotiating higher wages, particularly among senior female academics." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

Zitatform

Illing, Hannah, Johannes F. Schmieder & Simon Trenkle (2024): The Gender Gap in Earnings Losses After Job Displacement. In: Journal of the European Economic Association online erschienen am 13.03.2024, S. 1-41. DOI:10.1093/jeea/jvae019

Abstract

"We compare men and women who are displaced from similar jobs by applying an event study design combined with propensity score matching and reweighting to administrative data from Germany. After a mass layoff, women’ s earnings losses are about 35% higher than men’ s, with the gap persisting five years after displacement. This is partly explained by women taking up more part-time employment, but even women’ s full-time wage losses are almost 50% higher than men’ s. Parenthood magnifies the gender gap sharply. Finally, displaced women spend less time on job search and apply for lower-paid jobs, highlighting the importance of labor supply decisions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Oxford Academic) ((en))

Zitatform

Keitel, Christiane; Michaela Fuchs & Anja Rossen (interviewte Person) (2024): Regionaler Gender Pay Gap: Die Branchenstruktur vor Ort macht den Unterschied (Interview). In: IAB-Forum H. 04.03.2024. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20240304.02

Abstract

"Dass Frauen in Deutschland im Schnitt deutlich weniger verdienen als Männer, ist den meisten Menschen bewusst. Die nationale Betrachtung verdeckt jedoch große Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Regionen. Anlässlich des deutschlandweiten Equal Pay Days, der 2024 auf den 6. März fällt, haben Regionalforscherinnen aus dem IAB einen Bericht vorgelegt, der den Gender Pay Gap auf regionaler Ebene aufzeigt. Die Redaktion des IAB-Forums hat dazu bei Michaela Fuchs und Anja Rossen nachgefragt.." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Kiessling, Lukas, Pia Pinger, Philipp Seegers & Jan Bergerhoff (2024): Gender differences in wage expectations and negotiation. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 87. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2024.102505

Abstract

"This paper presents evidence from a large-scale study on gender differences in expected wages before labor market entry. Based on data for over 15,000 students, we document a significant and large gender gap in wage expectations that resembles actual wage differences, prevails across subgroups, and along the entire distribution. Over the life-cycle this gap amounts to roughly half a million Euros. Our findings further suggest that expected wages relate to expected asking and reservation wages and that a difference in plans about ‘‘boldness’’ during prospective wage negotiations pertains to gender difference in expected and actual wages. Given the importance of wage expectations for labor market decisions, household bargaining, and wage setting, our results provide an explanation for persistent gender inequalities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))

Zitatform

Neef, Theresa (2024): The Long Way to Gender Equality: Gender Pay Differences in Germany, 1871-2021. (Working paper / World Inequality Lab 04424,48), Paris, 54 S.

Abstract

"This paper provides the first time series of the gender earnings ratio for the full-time employed workforce in Germany since the 1870s and compares Germany's path with the Swedish and U.S. cases. The industrialization period yielded slow advances in economic gender relations due to women's delayed inclusion in the industrial workforce. The first half of the 20th century exhibited a marked leap. In Germany, the gender earnings ratio increased from 47% in 1913 to 58% in 1937. Similar increases are visible in Sweden and the United States. In all three countries, the interplay between increased women's education and increased returns to education due to the expanding white-collar sector fueled pay convergence. Yet in Germany, women's educational catch-up was slowed due to the dominance of on-the-job vocational training. German women's migration from low-paid agricultural work to higher-paid white-collar jobs was predominantly increasing the gender pay ratio. The postwar period brought diverging developments between Germany, Sweden and the United States due to different economic conditions and policy action." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Sprengholz, Maximilian & Maik Hamjediers (2024): Intersections and Commonalities: Using Matching to Decompose Wage Gaps by Gender and Nativity in Germany. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 51, H. 2, S. 249-286. DOI:10.1177/07308884221141100

Abstract

"We investigate intersecting wage gaps by gender and nativity by comparing the wages between immigrant women, immigrant men, native women, and native men based on Western German survey data. Adding to the analytical diversity of the field, we do a full comparison of group wages to emphasize the relationality of privilege and disadvantage, and we use a nonparametric matching decomposition that is well suited to address unique group-specific experiences. We find that wage (dis)advantages associated with the dimensions of gender and nativity are nonadditive and result in distinct decomposition patterns for each pairwise comparison. After accounting for substantial group differences in work attachment, individual resources, and occupational segregation, unexplained wage gaps are generally small for comparisons between immigrant women, immigrant men, and native women, but large when either group is compared to native men. This finding suggests that the often presumed “double disadvantage” of immigrant women is rather a “double advantage” of native men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Winters, Jutta & Alan Manning; Alan Manning (sonst. bet. Pers.) (2024): Gender Pay Gap in the United Kingdom and in Germany(Video). In: IAB-Forum H. 08.03.2024 Nürnberg. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20240308.02

Abstract

"The 8th of March marks the annual International Women’s Day. Wages are an important factor in driving gender parity. In a video interview Professor Alan Manning talks about the gender pay gap between men and women in the United Kingdom and in Germany." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Adriaans, Jule & Matteo Targa (2023): Gender differences in fairness evaluations of own earnings in 28 European countries. In: European Societies, Jg. 25, H. 1, S. 107-131. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2022.2083651

Abstract

"Women tend to evaluate their own pay more favorably than men. Contented women are speculated to not seek higher wages, thus the ‘paradox of the contented female worker’ may contribute to persistent gender pay differences. We extend the literature on gender differences in pay evaluations by investigating fairness evaluations of own earnings and underlying conceptions of fair earnings, providing a closer link to potential subsequent wage demands than previous literature. Using European Social Survey (2018/2019) data, we find no evidence that women evaluate their own earnings more favorably than men. In 15 out of the 28 analyzed countries, women actually report more intense levels of perceived unfairness. Studying fair markups on unfair earnings, i.e. the relative distance between the earnings received and earnings considered fair, we find that women report the same, if not lower, fair markups compared to men in most countries; thus indicating limited potential for perceived unfairness as a driving force to reduce the gender pay gap in Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Adsera, Alícia & Federica Querin (2023): The Gender Wage Gap and Parenthood: Occupational Characteristics Across European Countries. In: European Journal of Population, Jg. 39. DOI:10.1007/s10680-023-09681-4

Abstract

"Different strands of research analyse gender occupational differences and how they relate to differential earnings, especially among parents juggling family demands. We use rich data from PIAAC across a subset of European countries and match occupational characteristics to individuals’ jobs using the O*NET database to analyse, first, whether there are gender differences in the occupational characteristics of jobs, particularly among parents, and second, whether the return to key occupational characteristics varies by gender. Compared to men, women’s jobs generally require more contact with others, less autonomy in decision-making, and less time pressure. In addition, positions held by mothers involve both less leadership expectations and less intensive use of machines than those held by fathers. Further, mothers receive a lower return to both of these occupational characteristics than fathers do. Finally, even though gaps in occupational characteristics such as leadership jointly with the differential sorting of mothers and fathers across sectors explain part of the gender wage gap in Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition models, especially in Continental Europe, a large share remains unexplained particularly in Eastern and Southern European countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Zitatform

Alfitian, Jakob, Marvin Deversi & Dirk Sliwka (2023): Closing the Gender Gap in Salary Increases: Evidence from a Field Experiment on Promoting Pay Equity. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16278), Bonn, 23 S.

Abstract

"We present a natural field experiment on promoting pay equity through simple modifications to the salary review process involving 623 middle managers and 8,951 subordinate employees of a large technology firm. We first document a gender gap not only in salary levels but also in salary increases. Our treatments provide for a gender-blind reallocation of the salary increase budget available to middle managers aimed at promoting pay equity, along with different variants of a corresponding decision guidance. We show that the budget reallocation combined with an explicit decision guidance, while still leaving middle managers discretion in allocating the budget, can completely eliminate the gender gap in salary increases. The treatments also do not appear to undermine the desired performance differentiation in salary increases. We thus show that simple modifications to the salary review process can go a long way toward achieving pay equity by preventing gender gaps from widening throughout employees' careers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Andre, Christophe, Orsetta Causa, Emilia Soldani, Douglas Sutherland & Filiz Unsal (2023): Promoting gender equality to strengthen economic growth and resilience. (OECD Economics Department working papers 1776), Paris, 23 S. DOI:10.1787/54090c29-en

Abstract

"Women's employment rates and wages are still lagging those of men across OECD countries, with average employment and wage gaps now around 15% and 12% respectively. Gaps narrowed at a relatively modest pace over the past decade, calling for further policy action. A lack of affordable high-quality childcare is often an obstacle to women's participation in the labor market and notably to working full time. A very unequal sharing of parental leave between parents and challenges upon return to work further hampers women's careers. Biases in the tax system may discourage women from working in some countries. Women face disadvantage in accessing management positions and entrepreneurship. A range of policies can help reduce gender gaps, including better childcare provision, incentivizing parents to better share parental leave, re-skilling and upskilling on return from parental leave, encouraging gender equality within firms, integration programs for foreign-born women, promoting women entrepreneurship and financial inclusion, and levelling taxation for second earners. Moreover, the multiple dimensions and root causes of gender inequality call for mainstreaming gender across policy domains." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Asali, Muhammad (2023): Civil rights experiments versus enrichment experiments in wage gap analysis. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 30, H. 10, S. 1395-1399. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2022.2056124

Abstract

"The choice of the non-discriminatory vector of returns in Oaxaca-Blinder wage gap decompositions affects the results. Rather than being arbitrary, that choice should depend on the nature of the intended policy to address wage differentials in the labour market. The effectiveness of policies at the extensive margin, such as those offering greater access to higher education, is better estimated by the explained part of the wage gap, when choosing the lower-wage group’s vector of returns as non-discriminatory (the ‘enrichment experiment’). Alternatively, the effectiveness of affirmative action policies is better estimated by the unexplained part of the wage gap, when choosing the higher-wage group’s vector of returns as non-discriminatory (the ‘civil rights experiment’). We provide an example of applying this methodology for ethnic and gender wage differentials in the Georgian labour market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bailey, Martha J., Thomas E. Helgerman & Bryan A. Stuart (2023): How the 1963 Equal Pay Act and 1964 Civil Rights Act Shaped the Gender Gap in Pay. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 31332), Cambridge, Mass, 44 S.

Abstract

"In the 1960s, two landmark statutes—the Equal Pay and Civil Rights Acts—targeted the long-standing practice of employment discrimination against U.S. women. For the next 15 years, the gender gap in median earnings among full-time, full-year workers changed little, leading many scholars and advocates to conclude the legislation was ineffectual. This paper uses two different research designs to show that women's relative wages grew rapidly in the aftermath of this legislation. The data show little evidence of short-term changes in women's employment, but some results suggest that firms reduced their hiring and promotion of women in the medium term." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bar-Haim, Eyal, Louis Chauvel, Janet Gornick & Anne Hartung (2023): The Persistence of the Gender Earnings Gap: Cohort Trends and the Role of Education in Twelve Countries. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 165, H. 3, S. 821-841. DOI:10.1007/s11205-022-03029-x

Abstract

"Studying twelve countries over 30 years, we examine whether women's educational expansion has translated into a narrowing of the gender gap in earnings when including persons with zero earnings. As educational attainment is cohort-dependent, an Age-Period-Cohort analysis is most appropriate in our view. Using the micro data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database, we show that while, in terms of attainment of tertiary education, women have caught up and often even outperform men, substantial gender differences in our earnings measure persist in all countries. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method in an innovative age-period-cohort approach, we demonstrate that the role of education in explaining gender earnings differences has been limited and even decreased over cohorts. We also conclude that, when including persons not receiving earnings, earnings differences at levels far from gender equality will likely persist in the future, even if the “rise of women” in terms of education continues—as the share of women in higher education increases and the returns to education in particular for women declines." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Zitatform

Barigozzi, Francesca, Helmuth Cremer & Emmanuel Thibault (2023): The Motherhood Wage and Income Traps. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16072), Bonn, 38 S.

Abstract

"We present a simple dynamic model based on on-the-job human capital accumulation affecting the dynamic of wage rates and labor earnings. We show how these dynamics are determined by the interplay between the supply and demand sides of the labor market. The model can generate and explain the different dynamics of women's earnings after childbirth documented in the empirical literature on child penalties. We show that the temporary negative shock in labor supply due to childbearing may create a wage trap and a permanent divergence of labor earnings between genders. Even when the wage trap is avoided, and working mothers are on a path toward a high-wage equilibrium, slow convergence can permanently lose earnings. We use this model to study the impact of different policies on the gender wage gap and child penalties. We show that mandatory maternal leave exacerbates the shock which pleads against long leaves. Similarly, cash transfers to mothers via the income effect on labor supply aggravate gender wage differences. By contrast, temporary subsidies to mothers' wages (possibly in the form of Income Tax Credits) are not only useful to exit the wage trap, but also to speed up recovery and reduce the child penalty when the shock in labor supply is small enough to avoid the wage trap. Other family policies, like formal child-care subsidies and in-kind provision of formal childcare, are potentially useful because they reduce the mothers' cost of labor supply, but they affect mothers' choices only indirectly." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bellmann, Lutz & Stephanie Prümer (2023): Double qualifications, earnings and gender in Germany. In: Bulletin of geography. Socio-economic series H. 62, S. 59-69., 2023-12-29. DOI:10.12775/bgss-2023-0034

Abstract

"Nach dem Abitur sind Schulabgänger in Deutschland frei in der Wahl ihres Berufsweges. Beliebt ist dabei der Erwerb einer Doppelqualifikation, indem zunächst eine Lehre absolviert und anschließend ein Studium abgeschlossen wird. Auf Basis der BIBB/BAuA-Erwerbstätigenbefragung 2018 werden in diesem Beitrag die individuellen Auswirkungen dieser Doppelqualifikationen unter Ausnutzung der umfangreichen Bildungsinformationen in den Daten analysiert. Im Vergleich zu früheren Studien stellen wir fest, dass der Anteil der Männer, die eine Doppelqualifikation erworben haben, um 8 Prozentpunkte gesunken ist, während er bei den Frauen nahezu konstant ist. Außerdem stellen wir einen signifikant negativen Effekt der Doppelqualifikation auf die Löhne von Frauen fest, aber keinen signifikanten Effekt auf die Löhne von Männern. Wir vermuten, dass diese Veränderungen mit der Ungleichheit durch die steigende Zahl von Akademikern und der Zunahme der Einkommensungleichheit zusammenhängt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Binder, Ariel J., Amanda Eng, Kendall Houghton & Andrew Foote (2023): Is the Gender Pay Gap Largest at the Top? (Working papers / U.S. Census Bureau, Center for Economic Studies 2023-61), Washington, DC, 10 S.

Abstract

"No: it is at least as large at bottom percentiles of the earnings distribution. Conditional quantile regressions reveal that while the gap at top percentiles is largest among the most-educated, the gap at bottom percentiles is largest among the least-educated. Gender differences in labor supply create more pay inequality among the least-educated than they do among the most-educated. The pay gap has declined throughout the distribution since 2006, but it declined more for the most-educated women. Current economics-of-gender research focuses heavily on the top end; equal emphasis should be placed on mechanisms driving gender inequality for noncollege-educated workers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Binder, Ariel J., Amanda Eng, Kendall Houghton & Andrew Foote (2023): The Gender Pay Gap and its Determinants across the Human Capital Distribution. (Working papers / U.S. Census Bureau, Center for Economic Studies 2023-31), Washington, DCÐAWashington, DC, 31 S.

Abstract

"This paper leverages a unique linkage between American Community Survey data and postsecondary transcript records to examine how the gender pay gap, and its proximate determinants, varies across the distribution of education credentials in the 15 years following graduation. Although recent literature focuses on career disparities between the highest-educated women and men, we find evidence that the pay gap is smaller at higher education levels. Field-of-degree and occupation effects explain most of the gap among top bachelor's graduates, while labor supply and unobserved channels matter more for less-competitive bachelor's, associate's, and certificate graduates. This heterogeneity in gap levels and mechanisms is especially large in the first decade following graduation. Our results suggest that contemporary early-career gender inequality lacks a unified explanation and requires different policy interventions for different subgroups. More research is needed to understand the larger unexplained gender pay gap among less-educated individuals." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Blair, Peter Q. & Benjamin Posmanick (2023): Why Did Gender Wage Convergence in the United States Stall? (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 30821), Cambridge, Mass, 63 S. DOI:10.3386/w30821

Abstract

"During the 1980s, the wage gap between white women and white men in the US declined by approximately 1 percentage point per year. In the decades since, the rate of gender wage convergence has stalled to less than one-third of its previous value. An outstanding puzzle in economics is "why did gender wage convergence in the US stall?" Using an event study design that exploits the timing of state and federal family-leave policies, we show that the introduction of the policies can explain 94% of the reduction in the rate of gender wage convergence that is unaccounted for after controlling for changes in observable characteristics of workers. If gender wage convergence had continued at the pre-family leave rate, wage parity between white women and white men would have been achieved as early as 2017." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Blesch, Maximilian, Philipp Eisenhauer, Peter Haan, Boryana Ilieva, Annekatrin Schrenker & Georg Weizsäcker (2023): Biased Wage Expectations and Female Labor Supply. (Discussion paper / Rationality & Competition, CCR TRR 190 411), München ; Berlin, 30 S.

Abstract

"Wage growth occurs almost exclusively in full-time work, whereas it is close to zero in part-time work. German women, when asked to predict their own potential wage outcomes, show severely biased expectations with strong over-optimism about the returns to part-time experience. We estimate a structural life-cycle model to quantify how beliefs influence labor supply, earnings and welfare over the life cycle. The bias increases part-time employment strongly, induces flatter long-run wage profiles, and substantially influences the employment effects of a widely discussed policy reform, the introduction of joint taxation. The most significant impact of the bias appears for college-educated women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Brick, Carmen, Daniel Schneider & Kristen Harknett (2023): The Gender Wage Gap, Between-Firm Inequality, and Devaluation: Testing a New Hypothesis in the Service Sector. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 50, H. 4, S. 539-577. DOI:10.1177/07308884221141072

Abstract

"Unequal sorting of men and women into higher and lower-wage firms contributes significantly to the gender wage gap according to recent analysis of national labor markets. We confirm the importance of this between-firm gender segregation in wages and examine a second outcome of hours using unique employer–employee data from the service sector. We then examine what explains the relationship between firm gender composition and wages. In contrast to prevailing economic explanations that trace between-firm differences in wages to differences in firm surplus, we find evidence consistent with devaluation and potentially a gender-specific use of “low road” employment strategies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Brändle, Tobias & Andreas Koch (2023): Entgelttransparenzgesetz erreicht Ziel nicht. In: Wirtschaftsdienst, Jg. 103, H. 12, S. 842-849. DOI:10.2478/wd-2023-0230

Abstract

"Das Entgelttransparenzgesetz soll dazu beitragen, das Gebot des gleichen Entgelts für Frauen und Männer bei gleicher oder gleichwertiger Arbeit durchzusetzen. Nach der zweiten Evaluation wird deutlich, dass dies mit den vorhandenen Instrumenten des Gesetzes nicht erreicht wird. Ohne größere Änderungen bleibt das Gesetz in großen Teilen ineffektiv – bei gleichzeitig substanziellen bürokratischen Auflagen für Betriebe. Der vorliegende Beitrag beschreibt die Ergebnisse der zweiten Evaluation und zeigt auf, in welche Richtung Reformen gehen könnten." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Brüggemann, Ole & Thomas Hinz (2023): Do women evaluate their lower earnings still to be fair? Findings on the contented female worker paradox examining the role of occupational contexts in 27 European countries. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 39, H. 6, S. 904-919. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcac073

Abstract

"It is still a puzzling question which gender inequalities in the labour market are perceived as fair and which are not – in the eye of the beholder. This study focuses on gender differences in the perceptions of the fairness of one’s own wage and the role of the occupational context individuals are embedded in. Based on data collected from 27 European countries as part of the 2018 European Social Survey (Round 9), our study contributes to the growing field of wage fairness perceptions by analysing the role of the occupational context (measured as the share of women and the gender pay gap in the respondent’s occupation), and how it moderates gender differences in fairness perceptions. Results indicate that – overall – female workers across Europe perceive their wages more often as unfairly “too low” than their male counterparts within the same country context and occupation, and that this gender gap is more pronounced in occupations with a high proportion of women and higher levels of gender inequality. We interpret these results as an indicator of growing awareness among women regarding the persisting “unfair” gendered wage distributions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Brüggemann, Ole (2023): Employees' perceptions of co-workers' internal promotion penalties: the role of gender, parenthood and part-time. In: European Societies online erschienen am 26.10.2023, S. 1-29. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2023.2270049

Abstract

"Much research has focused on penalties by gender, parenthood and part-time work for hiring processes or wages, but their role for promotions is less clear. This study analyzes perceived chances for internal promotion, using a factorial survey design. Employees in 540 larger German (>100 employees) firms were asked to rate the likelihood of internal promotion for vignettes describing fictitious co-workers who varied in terms of gender, parenthood, working hours as well as age, earnings, qualification, tenure and job performance. Results show that promotion chances are perceived as significantly lower for co-workers who are women (gender penalty), mothers (motherhood penalty) and part-time workers (part-time penalty). Fathers and childless men (co-workers) are not evaluated differently (no fatherhood premium or penalty), and neither does part-time employment seem to be perceived as a double penalty for male co-workers. All three perceived promotion penalties are more pronounced among female employees, mothers and part-time employees. These findings show that employees perceive differential promotion chances for co-workers which indicate actual differences due to discrimination, selective applications or structural dead-ends. Either way, perceived promotion penalties are likely consequential in guiding employee's application behavior and hence can contribute to the persistence of vertical gender segregation in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Böheim, Rene, Marian Fink & Christine Zulehner (2023): Lohnunterschiede zwischen Frauen und Männern in Österreich von 2005 bis 2021. (WIFO Research Briefs 2023,04), Wien, 8 S.

Abstract

"Schätzungen zeigen, dass der geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschied von 11,3% des durchschnittlichen Frauenlohns 2021 niedriger als in den Vorjahren war. Der bereinigte Lohnunterschied betrug 6,4% des durchschnittlichen Frauenlohns und unterschied sich damit kaum vom Vorjahreswert (6,2%). Maßgebliche Gründe für die beobachteten Lohnunterschiede sind, dass Frauen im Durchschnitt weniger Berufserfahrung als Männer haben und systematisch andere Berufe als Männer ergreifen. Ein weiterer Grund sind Unterschiede in unbeobachteten Merkmalen, wie beispielsweise unterschiedliches Verhalten bei individuellen Lohnverhandlungen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Choi, Koangsung, Francesco Renna & Chung Choe (2023): The impact of field of study on the gender wage gap: evidence from the first job offer out of college. In: Applied Economics online erschienen am 31.10.2023, S. 1-17. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2023.2276078

Abstract

"Using a sample of recently graduated college students from South Korea, we estimate the effects of the between-majors and within-major gender wage gap. We use a recentered influence function to decompose the wage differential between majors and find that women face a higher rate of return to the field of study. In addition, women tend to select their program of study with the intention of optimizing their earnings potential relative to men. In calculating the within-major gender wage gap, we control for selectivity into a field of study extending the current methodology to a multinomial logit setting. We test our model using a sample of new graduates from South Korea. We consider six college majors. The within-major wage differential ranged from 8.2% for natural science graduates to 17% for social science graduates. After selection is accounted for, the gender wage gap becomes smaller in humanities graduates but increases in natural science and medicine graduates. Decomposing the selection correction term into explained and unexplained factors eliminates discrimination in medicine and points to reverse discrimination in natural science." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Collischon, Matthias (2023): Gender inequality in the one percent: A look under the hood of high incomes in Germany. In: The British journal of sociology, Jg. 74, H. 3, S. 501-519., 2023-02-13. DOI:10.1111/1468-4446.13008

Abstract

"Gender differences in economic outcomes are important topics in social science research. However, the study of gender differences among economic elites—“the top one percent”—has received surprisingly little attention, likely also due to a lack of empirical data. This paper investigates gender differences in individual and household income among the top one percent of individual monthly net incomes and top two percent of net household incomes using data from the German Microcensus from 2006 to 2016 covering more than 3.3 million individuals. I find that women account for only around 14% of the one percent in individual incomes. Additionally, regarding the household level, women's incomes are sufficient to achieve two percent status in fewer than 10% of all households. Both numbers did hardly change over the decade from 2006 to 2016. Furthermore, women's pathways to belonging to a high-income household are far more dependent on their partner's education and employment status than men's. Overall, the findings thus show dramatic gender differences among the German economic elite that do not narrow over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Wiley) ((en))

Zitatform

Collischon, Matthias & Florian Zimmermann (2023): Lohnungleichheit zwischen Frauen und Männern: In Betrieben mit Gleichstellungsmaßnahmen ist die Verdienstlücke kleiner. (IAB-Kurzbericht 17/2023), Nürnberg, 8 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.KB.2317

Abstract

"Die Ungleichheit zwischen Frauen und Männern am Arbeitsmarkt ist ein viel beachtetes Thema in der politischen Debatte. In den letzten Jahren richtete sich das Augenmerk der Diskussion verstärkt darauf, welche Rolle Betriebe in diesem Zusammenhang spielen und wie sie zur Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern beitragen können. Die Autoren zeigen in ihrer Studie, dass die Einführung betrieblicher Maßnahmen zur Förderung der Gleichstellung mit einer Verringerung der Verdienstlücke zwischen Frauen und Männern im Betrieb einhergeht." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Collischon, Matthias (2023): Frauen sind im höchsten Einkommenssegment stark unterrepräsentiert. In: IAB-Forum H. 04.08.2023. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20230804.01

Abstract

"Von denjenigen Personen, deren monatliches Nettoeinkommen 5.500 Euro übersteigt, ist nur jede siebte eine Frau. Auch auf der Haushaltsebene scheint die Lohnlücke in diesem Einkommenssegment besonders groß. Eine Trendwende ist nicht in Sicht." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

D'Angelis, Ilaria (2023): The Search for Parental Leave and the Early-Career Gender Wage Gap. (Working paper / University of Massachusetts Boston, Department of Economics 2023-01), Boston, 45 S.

Abstract

"I show that highly educated millennial Americans search for employers that provide parental leave, and that women's stronger willingness to pay for this benefit contributes to the early-career growth in the gender wage gap. Using an hedonic job search model, I estimate that workers are offered higher wages when hired by employers providing paid and unpaid parental leave, but women are willing to pay, respectively, 40% more and 56% more than men for these benefits. While all workers search for jobs and experience wage growth by entering firms offering both high pay and valuable benefits, the gender wage gap increases as young women accept lower wages, compared to men, upon receiving job offers from employers who provide parental leave. While the early-career growth in the gender wage gap would decline by 75% if willingness to pay for parental leave did not differ across genders, a policy mandating and subsidizing parental leave provision could itself halve the early-career wage-gap growth. The widespread availability of parental leave would lessen workers' need to accept lower wages in exchange for its provision, reducing the gap in accepted wages between men and women entering leave-providing firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Di Nola, Alessandro, Luke Haywood & Haomin Wang (2023): Gendered effects of minimum wage. (Working Paper Series / Universität Konstanz, Cluster of Excellence 'The Politics of Inequality' 14), Konstanz, 52 S.

Abstract

"Women are more likely to work in jobs with low hours than men. Low-hour jobs are associated with lower hourly wages and are more likely impacted by minimum wages that set a floor on hourly wages. We document that the first German minimum wage significantly increased women's transition towards jobs with higher weekly hours. We construct and estimate an equilibrium search model with demographic and firm productivity heterogeneity. The model replicates observed gender gaps in employment, hours and wage and the positive relationship between hours and hourly wages. We implement the minimum wage in our model with a penalty to address non-compliance. Based on our model, the minimum wage primarily reduces the gender income gap through the gender wage gap. At its 2022 level, the German minimum wage reduces the gender employment and hours gap due to an upward reallocation effect, resulting in women's increased participation in higher-hour jobs with lower separation rates. The upward reallocation effect is the strongest for women with children and varies by marital state and spousal income. While the minimum wage only modestly discourages firms from posting jobs, it shifts job offers toward full-time positions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Dilmaghani, Maryam & Min Hu (2023): Gender earnings gap in Canadian economics departments. In: Applied Economics Letters online erschienen am 05.02.2023, S. 1-8. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2023.2174494

Abstract

"The status of women in economics is increasingly researched. However, the gender earnings gap among economics faculty is rarely examined due to data limitations. Relying on Canadian Public Sector Salary Disclosure lists, we construct a unique dataset of earnings, credentials, and research productivity of economics faculty members. We find a ceteris paribus gender earnings gap, which is driven by full professors." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Erkal, Nisvan, Lata Gangadharan & Boon Han Koh (2023): Discrimination in Evaluation Criteria: The Role of Beliefs versus Outcomes. (Department of Economics discussion papers / University of Exeter, Business School 2023,16), Exeter, 32 S.

Abstract

"Using incentivized experiments, we investigate whether different criteria are used in evaluating male and female leaders when outcomes are determined by unobservable choices and luck. Evaluators form beliefs about leaders' choices and make discretionary payments. We find that while payments to male leaders are determined by both outcomes and evaluators' beliefs, those to female leaders are determined by outcomes only. We label this new source of gender bias as the gender criteria gap. Our findings imply that high outcomes are necessary for women to get bonuses, but men can receive bonuses for low outcomes as long as evaluators hold them in high regard." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Farré, Lídia, Jordi Jofre-Monseny & Juan Torrecillas (2023): Commuting time and the gender gap in labor market participation. In: Journal of economic geography, Jg. 23, H. 4, S. 847-870. DOI:10.1093/jeg/lbac037

Abstract

"In this article, we investigate the contribution of increasing travel times to the persistent gender gap in labor market participation. In doing so, we estimate the effect of commuting times on the labor supply of men and women in the USA using microdata from the censuses of the last two decades. To address endogeneity concerns, we adopt an instrumental variables approach that exploits the shape of cities as an exogenous source of variation for travel times. Our estimates indicate that a 10-min increase in commuting time decreases the probability of married women participating in the labor market by 4.4 percentage points. In contrast, the estimated effect on men is small and statistically insignificant. When exploring potential mechanisms behind the gender asymmetry in our results, we do not find evidence that differences in labor market productivity within couples contribute to the larger penalty of commuting times on women. However, we do find that the negative effect on women increases with the number of children and is larger among those originating from countries with more gendered social norms. Based on this evidence, we conclude that in a context of increasing commuting costs the presence of gender norms that attribute to women the role of main caregivers may prevent gender convergence." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Fattmann, Rainer, Johanna Wolf & Wiebke Wiede (Hrsg.) (2023): Gender Pay Gap. Vom Wert und Unwert von Arbeit in Geschichte und Gegenwart. (Politik- und Gesellschaftsgeschichte 113), Bonn: Dietz, 287 S.

Abstract

"Der Gender Pay Gap ist ein vielschichtiges historisches Phänomen. Es ist verknüpft mit ungleichen Bewertungen von Arbeit auf den Arbeitsmärkten, mit Geschlechterbildern, die sich im Zeitverlauf nur langsam wandeln, und einer ungleichen Verteilung von Haus-, Sorge- und Erwerbsarbeit. Die Autorinnen zeichnen die Bedingungen der ungleichen Bezahlung aus unterschiedlichen Perspektiven exemplarisch nach. In der Bundesrepublik Deutschland verdienten Frauen im Jahr 2021 pro Arbeitsstunde etwa 18 Prozent weniger als Männer. Der Abstand in der Entlohnung wird seit Langem politisch und wissenschaftlich diskutiert. Dennoch verringert sich die Ungleichheit nur langsam. Existenz und Dauerhaftigkeit des Phänomens sind allerdings länderübergreifend. Der Band fragt aus der Perspektive von Geschichtswissenschaft, Soziologie, Rechts- und Wirtschaftswissenschaften nach historischen und gegenwärtigen Ausprägungen und Ursachen des Gender Pay Gaps" (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku, © Dietz)

Zitatform

Foliano, Francesca, Alex Bryson, Heather Joshi, Bożena Wielgoszewska & David Wilkinson (2023): Gender Wage Gap among Young Adults: A Comparison across British Cohorts. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 15973), Bonn, 61 S.

Abstract

"We study the evolution of the gender wage gap among young adults in Britain between 1972 and 2015 using data from four British cohorts born in 1946, 1958, 1970 and 1989/90 on early life factors, human capital, family formation and job characteristics. We account for non-random selection of men and women into the labour market and compare the gender wage gap among graduates and non-graduates. The raw and covariate adjusted gender wage gaps at the mean decline over the period among nongraduates, but they rise among young graduates. The gender wage gap across the wage distribution narrows over time for lower wages. Adjusting for positive selection into employment increases the size of the gender wage gap in earlier cohorts, but selection is not apparent in the two most recent cohorts. Thus the rate of convergence in the wages of young men and women is understated when estimates do not adjust for positive selection in earlier cohorts. Differences in traditional human capital variables explain only a very small component of the gender wage gaps among young people in all four cohorts, but occupational gender segregation plays an important role in the later cohorts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Forth, John & Nikolaos Theodoropoulos (2023): Employers and the gender wage gap. (IZA world of labor 511), Bonn, 10 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.511

Abstract

"In most developed countries, women have closed the gap in educational attainment and labor market experience, yet gender wage gaps persist. This has led to an increased focus on the role of employers and employment practices. In particular, research has focused on the types of workplace where men and women work, their promotion prospects and the extent to which they are rewarded differently for similar work. Understanding the relative importance of these features, and the mechanisms that generate them, is necessary to design effective policy responses." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Frimmel, Wolfgang, Bernhard Schmidpeter, Rene Wiesinger & Rudolf Winter-Ebmer (2023): External Pay Transparency and the Gender Wage Gap. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16233), Bonn, 36 S.

Abstract

"We show that providing publicly available wage information in vacancies, so-called external pay transparency, can reduce the gender wage gap. There is an increasing interest in pay transparency policies as a tool to combat unequal pay. We exploit a reform of Austria's Equal Treatment Law to evaluate how providing wage information in vacancies affects the gender wage gap. To take into account that the value of providing such external pay information is likely to be heterogeneous along the wage distribution, we implement a Quantile Difference-in-Difference model. The reform led to a small overall reduction of the gender wage gap. Our main results highlight that reductions in the wage gap are larger in circumstances where women are likely to hold misspecified beliefs about their labor market options and when needing to make job acceptance decisions under pressure. The reduction in the gender wage gap was caused by an increase in women's earnings, particularly at the lower part of the distribution. Earnings of men, on the other side, remained largely constant. Our results lend support to policy proposals aimed at increasing external pay transparency." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Fuchs, Michaela, Anja Rossen, Antje Weyh & Gabriele Wydra-Somaggio (2023): Regionale Unterschiede im Gender Pay Gap in Deutschland 2021. (Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung. Aktuelle Daten und Indikatoren), Nürnberg, 17 S.

Abstract

"Dass Frauen in Deutschland weniger verdienen als Männer, gilt gemeinhin als bekannt. Die nationale Betrachtung verdeckt jedoch große Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Regionen. Im Folgenden zeigen wir diese regionalen Unterschiede mit dem so genannten Gender Pay Gap (GPG) auf. Datengrundlage bildet hierbei der nominale Lohn (brutto), den sozialversicherungspflichtig Vollzeitbeschäftigte zum Stichtag 30.06.2021 in einer bestimmten Region verdient haben." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Galego, Aurora (2023): Recent trends in the gender wage gap in Portugal: a distributional analysis. In: Applied Economics Letters online erschienen am 16.10.2023, S. 1-4. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2023.2270223

Abstract

"Portugal displays a persistent gender wage gap which increased during the 2010-2013 economic crisis. This paper aims at examining the developments in the gender wage gap for the private sector from 2009 to 2019 using a decomposition across the wage distribution. We conclude that the gap has decreased at the lower and middle quantiles but remains quite wide at the top. The largest part of the gap stems from the structure effect, which suggests persistent discrimination." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Gao, Kaibo & Zhongjing Tian (2023): The Effect of Motherhood on Wages: are women's wage penalties due to lack of career aspirations? In: Applied Economics, Jg. 55, H. 54, S. 6410-6426. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2022.2156469

Abstract

"Mothers’ wages tend to be lower than those of equivalent childless women, and many researchers have reported on this ‘motherhood wage penalty’. We explore the relationship between pre-school children and their mothers’ wages to estimate the short-term effects of the ‘motherhood wage penalty’ and test the mechanisms of the ‘motherhood wage penalty’ in terms of changes in mothers’ mindsets. In addition, a novel instrumental variable was found. Based on data from the China Family Panel Studies, we find that children in China have a significant negative impact on the increase in mothers’ wages. The penalty is most severe for the low-income group. The reduction in mothers’ career enthusiasm after childbirth explains only 3.5% of the wage gap, suggesting that the wage penalty for mothers may come mainly from extrinsic factors. In addition, we find that grandparent care and the establishment of public childcare centres are effective in mitigating the ‘motherhood wage penalty’, and that delaying retirement may be detrimental to mothers’ wage increases." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Garbinti, Bertrand, Cecilia García Peñalosa, Vladimir Pecheu & Frédérique Savignac (2023): Unobserved Components Model(s): Output Gaps and Financial Cycles. (Documents de travail / Banque de France 925), Paris, 35 S.

Abstract

"This paper is the first to compute lifetime earnings (LTE) in France for a large number of cohorts that entered the labour market between 1967 and 1987. We compare our results with evidence by Guvenen et al. (2022) for the US, documenting sharp differences between the two countries. Median LTE show similar flat trends in both countries, but in France this results from a moderate increase for both genders together with increased female participation, while in the US, LTE declines for men and sharply grows for women. There have been marked changes in age profiles, as for both genders younger cohorts have experienced a decrease in entry wages that has been more than offset by faster wage growth. Our analysis of inequality finds that it is lower when we focus on LTE than in the cross-section, and that it follows a U-shaped pattern, although the increase is much smaller in France than that observed in the US. Lastly, we also find that i) education (returns and changes in attainment) plays a key role in shaping LTE across cohorts, and ii) differences in working time explain an increasing part of the gender gap in LTE over time as both men and women have increased the number of years they work but women have done so largely through part-time employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Gerst, Benedikt & Christian Grund (2023): Gender-Specific Duration of Parental Leave and Current Earnings. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 37, H. 1, S. 215-235. DOI:10.1177/09500170221090163

Abstract

"Although male employees are increasingly making use of parental leave, gender differences in both usage and duration of parental leave are still prevalent. Based on signalling theory and the masculinities concept, the article explores the role of gender in the relationship between the incidence/duration of parental leave and wages/compensation after returning to a job. It is shown that pay gaps associated with parental leave are much more severe for male than they are for female middle managers in the German chemical industry." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Gulyas, Andreas, Sebastian Seitz & Sourav Sinha (2023): Does Pay Transparency Affect the Gender Wage Gap? Evidence from Austria. In: American Economic Journal. Economic Policy, Jg. 15, H. 2, S. 236-255. DOI:10.1257/pol.20210128

Abstract

"We study the 2011 Austrian pay transparency law, which requires firms above a size threshold to publish internal reports on the gender pay gap. Using an event-study design, we show that the policy had no discernible effects on male and female wages, thus leaving the gender wage gap unchanged. The effects are precisely estimated, and we rule out that the policy narrowed the gender wage gap by more than 0.4 p.p.. Moreover, we do not find evidence for wage compression within establishments. We discuss several possible reasons why the reform did not reduce the gender wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Heathcote, Jonathan, Fabrizio Perri, Giovanni L. Violante & Lichen Zhang (2023): More unequal we stand? Inequality dynamics in the United States, 1967–2021. In: Review of Economic Dynamics, Jg. 50, S. 235-266. DOI:10.1016/j.red.2023.07.014

Abstract

"Heathcote et al. (2010) conducted an empirical analysis of several dimensions of inequality in the United States over the years 1967-2006, using publicly-available survey data. This paper expands the analysis, and extends it to 2021. We find that since the early 2000s, the college wage premium has stopped growing, and the race wage gap has stalled. However, the gender wage gap has kept shrinking. Both individual- and household-level income inequality have continued to rise at the top, while the cyclical component of inequality dominates dynamics below the median. Inequality in consumption expenditures has remained remarkably stable over time. Income pooling within the family and redistribution by the government have enormous impacts on the dynamics of household-level inequality, with the role of the family diminishing and that of the government growing over time. In particular, largely due to generous government transfers, the COVID recession has been the first downturn in fifty years in which inequality in disposable income and consumption actually declined." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 Elsevier) ((en))

Zitatform

Heilmann, Tom, Ute Klammer & Christina Klenner (2023): Welche Rolle spielt die Arbeitsbewertung für den Gender Pay Gap? Analysen mit dem neuen „ComparableWorth-Index“ geben Aufschluss. In: WISO, Jg. 23, H. 1, S. 51-69.

Abstract

"Die Lohnunterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen sind sowohl in Österreich als auch in Deutschland weiterhin beträchtlich. In bisherigen Analysen zum Gender Pay Gap ist der Einfluss der Arbeitsbewertung, die den Anspruch erhebt, Lohnunterschiede aufgrund unterschiedlich hoher Arbeitsanforderungen vorzunehmen, allerdings unterbeleuchtet geblieben. Mit dem „CW-Index“ ist es nun jedoch erstmals möglich, den Einfluss ungleicher Bewertungen gleichwertiger Arbeitsanforderungen auf den Gender Pay Gap zu quantifizieren" (Textauszug, IAB-Doku, © ISW-Linz)

Zitatform

Ilieva, Boryana (2023): Promotion Prospects and Within-level Wage Growth: A Decomposition of the Part-time Penalty for Women. (Discussion paper / Rationality & Competition, CCR TRR 190 457), München ; Berlin, 40 S.

Abstract

"I study the life-cycle pattern of part-time employment and its impact on wage growth in female careers. I show that the part-time wage penalty consists of two essential components: i) a penalty for promotions and ii) a within-career-level wage penalty. Using dynamic structural modeling, I quantify the relative importance of the channels. The penalty for working half a day for two consecutive years in one's early thirties is one Euro per hour. 70% of it is due to slowdowns in experience accumulation within career levels. A part-time spell of four years marks the point at which forgone chances of promotion and within-level wage losses contribute to the wage penalty to an equal degree. Counterfactual simulations demonstrate that financial incentives to increase the time spent working can be well complemented by policies which ensure that experienced young women are promoted early in their careers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Ivandić, Ria & Anne Sophie Lassen (2023): Gender Gaps From Labor Market Shocks. (Upjohn Institute working paper 387), Kalamazoo, Mich., 59 S. DOI:10.17848/wp23-387

Abstract

"Job loss leads to persistent adverse labor market outcomes, but assessments of gender differences in labor market recovery are lacking. We utilize plant closures in Denmark to estimate gender gaps in labor market outcomes and document that women face an increased risk of unemployment and lose a larger share of their earnings in the two years following job displacement. When accounting for observable differences in human Capital across men and women, half of the gender gap in unemployment remains. In a standard decomposition framework, we document that child care imposes an important barrier to women’s labor market recovery regardless of individual characteristics." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Jones, Melanie & Ezgi Kaya (2023): The UK gender pay gap: Does firm size matter? In: Economica, Jg. 90, H. 359, S. 937-952. DOI:10.1111/ecca.12481

Abstract

"Motivated by the introduction of the UK Gender Pay Gap Reporting legislation to large firms, defined as over 250 employees, we use linked employee–employer panel data from the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings to explore pre-legislation variation in the gender pay gap by firm size. In doing so, we contribute to the evidence on the relationship between two prominent empirical regularities in the labour economics literature, namely the gender pay gap and the firm-size wage premium. We find that both the raw and adjusted gender pay gaps increase with firm size in the UK private sector, even after controlling for unobserved worker heterogeneity, consistent with the legislation being targeted effectively. However, this conclusion changes after accounting for unobserved firm-level heterogeneity. Large firms have smaller within-firm raw gender pay gaps and similar adjusted gender pay gaps when compared to smaller firms. Our findings are not specific to the current definition of large firms but hold more generally, including at alternative proposed size thresholds." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

Zitatform

Kaya, Ezgi (2023): Gender wage gap trends in Europe: The role of occupational skill prices. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 162, H. 3, S. 385-405. DOI:10.1111/ilr.12338

Abstract

"This paper explores gender wage gap trends by assessing the role of changing wage returns to occupational skills, brains - cognitive and interpersonal skills, and brawn - motor-skills and physical strength. Using harmonised data for six European countries and comparable data for the US, this paper finds substantial variation in the impact of occupational skill prices across countries. However, in all countries, a considerable portion of the change in the gender wage gap cannot be explained by changes in occupational skill prices." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

Zitatform

Kleinert, Corinna, Kathrin Leuze, Ann-Christin Bächmann, Dörthe Gatermann, Anna Erika Hägglund & Kai Rompczyk (2023): Occupational Sex Segregation and its Consequences for the (Re-)Production of Gender Inequalities in the German Labour Market. In: S. Weinert, G. J. Blossfeld & H.-P. Blossfeld (Hrsg.) (2023): Education, Competence Development and Career Trajectories, S. 295-317, 2022-05-01. DOI:10.1007/978-3-031-27007-9_13

Abstract

"In Germany, the structuring principle connecting the educational system and the labour market is occupations. In theory, this occupational principle is gender-neutral, because both women and men are channelled into jobs according to the occupations for which they are trained. In practice, however, it means that patterns of occupational sex segregation in the education system are reproduced in the labour market. As a consequence, occupational sex segregation has important consequences for the subsequent employment biographies and life courses of women and men. In this chapter, we study the relevance of occupational sex segregation for the (re-)production of gender inequalities in the German labour market. More specifically, we examine long-term trends in occupational sex segregation, how occupational sex segregation is causally linked to other occupational characteristics, how these occupational characteristics translate into gender inequalities regarding non-monetary labour market outcomes, and how these occupational characteristics affect the gender wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer) ((en))

Zitatform

Kochhar, Rakesh (2023): The Enduring Grip of the Gender Pay Gap. Washington, DC, 15 S.

Abstract

"The gender pay gap – the difference between the earnings of men and women – has barely closed in the United States in the past two decades. In 2022, American women typically earned 82 cents for every dollar earned by men. That was about the same as in 2002, when they earned 80 cents to the dollar. The slow pace at which the gender pay gap has narrowed this century contrasts sharply with the progress in the preceding two decades: In 1982, women earned just 65 cents to each dollar earned by men. Line chart showing gender pay gap narrowed in the 1980s and ’90s, but progress has stalled since There is no single explanation for why progress toward narrowing the pay gap has all but stalled in the 21st century. Women generally begin their careers closer to wage parity with men, but they lose ground as they age and progress through their work lives, a pattern that has remained consistent over time. The pay gap persists even though women today are more likely than men to have graduated from college. In fact, the pay gap between college-educated women and men is not any narrower than the one between women and men who do not have a college degree. This points to the dominant role of other factors that still set women back or give men an advantage." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Kray, Laura, Jessica Kennedy & Margaret Lee (2023): Now, Women Do Ask: A Call to Update Beliefs about the Gender Pay Gap. In: The Academy of Management Discoveries online erschienen am 15.08.2023. DOI:10.5465/amd.2022.0021

Abstract

"For over two decades, gender differences in the propensity to negotiate have been thought to explain the gender pay gap. We ask whether a “women don’t ask” pattern holds today among working adults. We compare estimates of gender differences in negotiation propensity (Study 1) with actual patterns from MBA students (n = 1,435) and alumni (n = 1,939) from a top U.S. business school (Studies 2A-2B). Contrary to lay beliefs, women report negotiating their salaries more often (not less) than men. We then re-analyze meta-analytic data on self-reported initiation of salary negotiations to reconcile our findings with prior work (Study 2C). While men reported higher negotiation propensity than women prior to the twenty-first century, the gender difference grew neutral and then reversed since then. Negotiation propensity rose across time for both men and women, although to differing degrees. Finally, we explore the consequences of the now-outdated belief that “women don’t ask,” finding that it increases gender stereotyping, even on dimensions unrelated to negotiation, and it is associated with both greater system-justification and weaker support for legislation addressing pay equity (Studies 3 and 4). Our research calls for an updating of beliefs about gender and the propensity to negotiate for pay." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Lawitzky, Corinna & Antje Weyh (2023): Der Preis von Mutterschaft – die Lohnlücke zwischen Frauen mit und ohne Kinder in Ost- und Westdeutschland. In: Gender, Jg. 15, H. 1, S. 119-137., 2021-12-07. DOI:10.3224/gender.v15i1.09

Abstract

"Die vorliegende Studie analysiert die Lohnlücke zwischen Frauen mit und ohne Kinder vor dem Hintergrund unterschiedlicher gesellschaftlicher Rollenbilder in Ost- und Westdeutschland. Die Datengrundlage bildet die Beschäftigtenhistorik des Instituts für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung, die Angaben zu allen sozialversicherungspflichtig Beschäftigten in Deutschland enthält. Vollzeitbeschäftigte Frauen mit Kindern verdienen weniger als Frauen ohne Kinder, wobei dieser Lohnunterschied in Westdeutschland deutlich größer ausfällt als in Ostdeutschland. Mittels einer Oaxaca-Blinder-Zerlegung weisen wir wichtige Einflussfaktoren aus und können einen bereinigten Lohnunterschied ermitteln. Dabei deuten die Ergebnisse der Zerlegungen darauf hin, dass historische Unterschiede bezüglich der gesellschaftlichen Leitbilder zur Mutterrolle in Ost- und Westdeutschland weiterhin bestehen. Die Abkehr vom traditionellen Bild der Mutterrolle ist somit nach wie vor relevant für den Abbau des Lohnnachteils für Mütter." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku, © Budrich)

Zitatform

Lochner, Benjamin & Christian Merkl (2023): Wie Männer und Frauen sich bei der Jobsuche unterscheiden: Bewerbungsverhalten kann die Hälfte der bereinigten Verdienstlücke erklären. (IAB-Kurzbericht 8/2023), Nürnberg, 8 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.KB.2308

Abstract

"Frauen verdienen im Durchschnitt weniger als Männer. Dies wird in der Wissenschaft intensiv analysiert und in der Politik oft debattiert. Dabei findet das geschlechtsspezifische Bewerbungsverhalten bisher kaum Beachtung. Die Analyse detaillierter Betriebsdaten zeigt aber, dass sich Männer und Frauen selbst innerhalb eng definierter Berufe auf Stellen mit unterschiedlichen Eigenschaften bewerben und dass dies einen erheblichen Teil der Verdienstlücke erklärt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Lochner, Benjamin & Christian Merkl (2023): How men and women differ when searching for a job: application behaviour can explain half of the residual earnings gap. In: IAB-Forum H. 25.10.2023. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20231025.01

Abstract

"On average, women earn less than men. So far, gender-specific application behaviour has received little attention in this context. It can, however, explain a considerable part of the gender earnings gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Mayrhuber, Christine (2023): Auswirkungen von Berufswahl, Erwerbsunterbrechungen und Teilzeitarbeit auf das Lebenseinkommen von Frauen: Zentrale Ergebnisse und Schlussfolgerungen einer aktuellen Studie im Auftrag des AMS Österreich. (AMS-Info / Arbeitsmarktservice Österreich 576), Wien, 4 S.

Abstract

"(...) Die vorliegende Studie ist eine Aktualisierung wie auch Erweiterung einer Studie aus 2017. Im ersten Abschnitt wird die Arbeitsmarktintegration der Frauen in Österreich entlang der Dimensionen Arbeitszeit und Einkommen analysiert. Die Datengrundlage sowie die Annahmen zu den modellierten Erwerbs- und Einkommensverläufen finden sich im zweiten Abschnitt. Der dritte Abschnitt behandelt die strukturellen Unterschiede der Erwerbseinkommens- summen entlang unterschiedlicher Wirtschaftsbranchen und Berufe, die Frauen ohne Erwerbsunterbrechungen haben. Ein Vergleich der Erwerbseinkommen bei durchgängigen Erwerbsverläufen zeigt, dass die strukturellen Verdienstunterschiede zwischen den Wirtschaftsklassen im Hinblick auf die Lebenseinkommensmöglichkeiten bedeutender sind, als die Effekte von vorübergehenden Teilzeitphasen. Im vierten Abschnitt sind die Ergebnisse der modellierten elf hypothetischen Erwerbsbiographien auf die Erwerbs- und Pensionseinkommen der Frauen festgehalten. Im ersten Teil sind die Unterschiede der summieren Erwerbseinkommen diskutiert, die Vollzeit- und Teilzeiterwerbstätigkeit nach sich zieht. Des Weiteren wird gezeigt, welche Auswirkungen sowohl Erwerbsunterbrechungen als auch Teilzeitarbeitsphasen auf das Lebenseinkommen in fünf unterschiedlichen Berufen und fünf unterschiedlichen Wirtschaftsbranchen haben. (...)" (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

McGee, Andrew & Peter McGee (2023): Gender Differences in Reservation Wages in Search Experiments. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16577), Bonn, 26 S.

Abstract

"Women report setting lower reservation wages than men in survey data. We show that women set reservation wages that are 14 to 18 percent lower than men's in laboratory search experiments that control for factors not fully observed in surveys such as offer distributions and outside options. This gender gap—which exists even controlling for overconfidence, preferences, personality, and intelligence—leads women to spend less time searching than men while accepting lower wages. Women—but not men—set reservation wages that are too low relative to theoretically optimal values given their risk preferences early in search, reducing their earnings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Melentyeva, Valentina & Lukas Riedel (2023): Child Penalty Estimation and Mothers' Age at First Birth. (ECONtribute discussion paper 266), Köln ; Bonn, 43 S.

Abstract

"Motherhood continues to pose significant challenges to women's careers, and a correct assessment of its effects is crucial for understanding the persistent gender inequality in the labor market. We show that the prevalent approach to estimate post-birth earnings losses – so called “child penalties” – is prone to yield substantially biased results. We demonstrate that the biases stem from conventional event studies pooling together first-time mothers of all ages, without considering their distinct characteristics and the varying impact of motherhood. To address the biases, we propose a novel approach that accounts for the heterogeneity by building upon recent advancements in the econometric literature on difference-in-differences models. Applying it to administrative data from Germany, we demonstrate that considering heterogeneity by maternal age at birth is crucial for both methodological correctness and a deeper understanding of gender inequality. Our approach yields substantially larger estimates of earnings losses after childbirth (by 20 percent), indicating that the costs of motherhood and related gender gaps in Germany are even larger than previously thought. Moreover, we demonstrate that effects and their interpretation differ significantly depending on maternal age at birth. We show that younger first-time mothers experience larger career costs of motherhood, as they miss out on the phase of the most rapid career progression." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Nisén, Jessica, Anni Erlandsson & Marika Jalovaara (2023): Gendered Relationship of Childbearing with Earnings Accumulated by Midlife in Two Nordic Countries. (INVEST working papers 2023,75), Helsinki, 27 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/mr4yg

Abstract

"Nordic countries are considered advanced in gender equality, but also in these countries women still take longer family leaves and have lower earnings than men. This study providesnovel insight by assessing the differences in accumulated earnings by midlife associated with childbearing among women and men in Finland and Sweden. We place particular attention to the magnitude of gender gaps in accumulated earnings across groups. We hypothesize larger gender gaps among those with a larger number of children, among those with a lower level of education, and overall, in Finland. The study is based on full-population register data, with highly accurate measures of earnings across decades. Our results indicate that women born in 1974–1975 accumulatedon average 32% and 29% less labor earnings than men by age 44 in Finland and Sweden, respectively. Childbearing strongly modifies the gender gap especially in Finland, and the highly educated have moderately smaller gaps in both countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Ohlert, Clemens (2023): Auswirkungen des gesetzlichen Mindestlohns auf Geschlechterungleichheiten bei Arbeitszeiten und Verdiensten. In: Soziale Welt, Jg. 74, H. 4, S. 562-588. DOI:10.5771/0038-6073-2023-4-562

Abstract

"Der Aufsatz geht der Frage nach, ob die Einführung des gesetzlichen Mindestlohns zu einer Reduzierung von Geschlechterungleichheiten nicht nur bei Stundenlöhnen, sondern auch bei Arbeitszeiten und monatlichen Verdiensten beigetragen hat. Anhand der Verdienststrukturerhebung 2014 und der Verdiensterhebung 2015 wurden ein Panel-Datensatz generiert und Differenz-in-Differenzen-Analysen auf der Betriebsebene durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine bis zu 3,6 Prozentpunkte stärkere Reduzierung des durchschnittlichen Gender Pay Gap der Stundenlöhne in vom Mindestlohn betroffenen Betrieben als in nicht betroffenen Betrieben. Die Stundenlohneffekte des Mindestlohns auf Frauen und Männer im Niedriglohnbereich fielen jedoch gleich hoch aus. Zudem ergäbe sich keine Verringerung des Gender Pay Gap durch den Mindestlohn, wenn Frauen und Männer gleich auf Vollzeit-, Teilzeit- und geringfügige Beschäftigung verteilt wären. Der Gender Time Gap verringerte sich in vom Mindestlohn betroffenen Betrieben im Durchschnitt um rund 2,4 Prozentpunkte und für Beschäftigte im Niedriglohnbereich um rund 3,9 Prozentpunkte stärker als in nicht betroffenen Betrieben. Durch den Mindestlohn kam es zu einer deutlichen Verringerung des durchschnittlichen Gender Earnings Gap der monatlichen Bruttoverdienste. Dieser reduzierte sich in vom Mindestlohn betroffenen Betrieben bei Betrachtung aller Beschäftigten um bis zu 6,1 Prozentpunkte und bei Niedriglohnbeschäftigten um bis zu 4,6 Prozentpunkte stärker als in nicht betroffenen Betrieben." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Paek, Eunjeong (2023): Does Overwork Attenuate the Motherhood Earnings Penalty among Full-Time Workers? In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 37, H. 1, S. 78-96. DOI:10.1177/09500170211041293

Abstract

"This study examines whether working long hours alters the motherhood earnings penalty in the context of the United States. The author uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979–2014) to model the annual earnings penalty mothers incur per child in the United States. The results support that working long hours (50+ hours per week) reduces the negative effect of motherhood on earnings for white women. Once we control for human capital and labour supply, however, there is no difference in the effect of children on earnings between full-time workers and over workers. For Black full-time workers and over workers, having an additional child has little effect on earnings. The findings suggest that although overwork appears to attenuate the earnings penalty for white mothers, white mothers who work long hours exhibit a smaller penalty because they already have high levels of human capital and supply a great amount of labour." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Passaretta, Giampiero, Petra Sauer, Ulrike Schwabe & Katarina Weßling (2023): The role of overeducation and horizontal mismatch for gender inequalities in labor income of higher education graduates in Europe. In: Research in Comparative and International Education, Jg. 18, H. 1, S. 123-146. DOI:10.1177/17454999231158042

Abstract

"Evidence on gender inequality in the labor market is extensive. However, little is known about the potential role of overeducation and horizontal mismatch in explaining women’s labor-market disadvantages. We draw on recent data from the Eurograduate pilot survey to investigate the role of overeducation, field-of-study mismatch and field-specific overskilling for gender gaps in labor income in the European landscape. We found considerable variations in the extent of both gender earning gaps (GEGs) and wage gaps (GWGs) across countries. However, our decomposition analyses show that neither overeducation nor horizontal mismatch contribute to explaining these gender gaps. The lack of mediation seems related to either the absence of gender differences in overeducation and horizontal mismatch, or to the nonexistence of income penalties associated with the mismatch." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Passaretta, Giampiero & Moris Triventi (2023): Inequality at the top. The gender earnings gap among the Italian educational elite. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 85. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2023.100796

Abstract

"Does a gender earnings gap exist at the top of the educational distribution? Based on population data on two recent cohorts of PhD graduates in Italy, we find that women’s monthly earnings are on average 16 % lower than men’s after 5–6 years in the labor market. The gender earnings gap is even wider at the bottom and top of the earnings distribution, reaching approximately 22 % and 19 %, respectively. Educational pathways before and during PhD studies, occupational characteristics, and family situation explain almost half of women’s average penalty and working hours alone one-fifth of it. The wider penalties at the bottom and top of the earnings distribution remain largely unexplained." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

Zitatform

Pfahl, Svenja & Eugen Unrau (2023): Frauen in vielen Branchen mehrfach benachteiligt. In: Gute Arbeit, Jg. 35, H. 10, S. 8-12.

Abstract

"Anhand wichtiger Indikatoren des WSI Gender-Daten-Portals liefert der WSI-Branchenreport erstmals eine Übersicht über den Stand der Gleichstellung in unterschiedlichen Branchen auf dem deutschen Arbeitsmarkt. Damit liegen amtliche und branchenspezifische Daten zu den Entgelt- und Arbeitszeitbedingungen von Frauen und Männern vor – für Analysen und als Handlungsauftrag." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Pfahl, Svenja, Eugen Unrau, Yvonne Lott & Maike Wittmann (2023): Stand der Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern in Deutschland in ausgewählten Branchen. (WSI-Report 80), Düsseldorf, 56 S.

Abstract

"Wie ist der Stand der Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern in den verschiedenen Branchen auf dem deutschen Arbeitsmarkt? Anhand zentraler Indikatoren auf Basis des WSI GenderDatenPortals (www.wsi.de/genderdatenportal) liefert der vorliegende Report eine knappe und zusammenfassende Übersicht über den aktuellen Stand der Geschlechtergleichstellung in Deutschland, erstmalig mit Fokus auf die Gleichstellungssituation in ausgewählten Branchen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Geschlechterungleichheit insbesondere in Hinblick auf die Arbeitszeitdauer und das Einkommen über (fast) alle Branchen besteht. Die branchenbezogene Betrachtung zeigt allerdings auch, dass Unterschiede in der Arbeitssituation zwischen Frauen und Männern in einigen Branchen im besonderen Maße vorherrschen. Diese Branchen weisen eine ungünstigere Arbeitssituation für Frauen (oder für Männer) in Bezug auf viele oder sogar alle der hier gewählten Indikatoren auf. In anderen Branchen gibt es eine vergleichsweise ausgeglichene Situation zwischen den Geschlechtern." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Pfahl, Svenja, Eugen Unrau, Maike Wittmann & Yvonne Lott (2023): Stand der Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern auf den Arbeitsmärkten in West- und Ostdeutschland. (WSI-Report 88), Düsseldorf, 51 S.

Abstract

"Wie ist der Stand der Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern auf den Arbeitsmärkten in West- und Ostdeutschland? Auf Basis aktueller Daten und den im WSI GenderDatenPortal (www.wsi.de/genderdatenportal) vorliegenden Analysen und Zeitreihen untersucht der vorliegende Report anhand von 22 Indikatoren aus den Bereichen Bildung, Erwerbsarbeit, Einkommen, Zeit, Sorgearbeit und Mitbestimmung, wie groß der jeweilige Geschlechterabstand auf den Arbeitsmärkten in West- und Ostdeutschland aktuell ausfällt. Auf dieser Basis wird diskutiert, ob und in welchem Umfang sich die beiden Landesteile hinsichtlich der Geschlechtergleichstellung in den letzten drei Jahrzehnten angenähert haben. Der vorliegende Report aktualisiert damit die Befunde des vorausgegangenen Reports Nr. 60 zur Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern auf den Arbeitsmärkten in West- und Ostdeutschland (Hobler et al. 2020) zusätzlich um die Betrachtung der Jahre 2021 bzw. 2022." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Picatoste, Xose, Anabela Mesquita & Fernando González-Laxe (2023): Gender wage gap, quality of earnings and gender digital divide in the European context. In: Empirica, Jg. 50, H. 2, S. 301-321. DOI:10.1007/s10663-022-09555-8

Abstract

"One of the leading national and international objectives is to achieve more egalitarian societies. Avoiding gender or digital gaps are priorities generally assumed as concerns of governments and international organizations. This paper evaluates the digital gender divide in its three stages: access, use and results, relating it to gender and salary gaps in the context of the European Union. Cluster analysis was conducted to classify the countries according to their gender digital divide. The influence of age and studies level of males and females was revised. Based on the OECD and EUROSTAT data, an empirical analysis was conducted. By comparison of means, the significant variables influencing the gender digital divide were identified, probing that the educational level significantly influences it, especially in what refers to the third stage. Finally, through a regression analysis, it was proved that the influence of the insecurity and the gender wage gap goes beyond the women and affects society." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Zitatform

Rotman, Assaf & Hadas Mandel (2023): Gender-Specific Wage Structure and the Gender Wage Gap in the U.S. Labor Market. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 165, H. 2, S. 585-606. DOI:10.1007/s11205-022-03030-4

Abstract

"This paper challenges the predominant conceptualization of the wage structure as gender-neutral, emphasizing the contribution that this makes to the gender wage gap. Unlike most decomposition analyses, which concentrated on gender differences in productivity-enhancing characteristics (the 'explained' portion), we concentrate on the 'wage structure' (the 'unexplained' portion), which can be defined as the market returns to productivity-enhancing characteristics. These returns are commonly considered a reflection of non-gendered economic forces of supply and demand, and gender differences in these returns are attributed to market failure or measurement error. Using PSID data on working-age employees from 1980 to 2010, we examine gender differences in returns to education and work experience in the U.S. labor market. Based on a threefold decomposition, we estimate the contribution of these differences to the overall pay gap. The results show that men's returns to education and work experience are higher than women's; and that in contrast to the well-documented trend of narrowing gender gaps in skills and earnings, the gaps in returns increase over time in men's favor. Furthermore, the existing gender differences in returns to skills explain a much larger proportion of the gender wage gap than differences in levels of education and experience between men and women. The paper discusses the mechanisms underlying these findings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Zitatform

Sassler, Sharon & Pamela Meyerhofer (2023): Factors shaping the gender wage gap among college-educated computer science workers. In: PLoS ONE, Jg. 18. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0293300

Abstract

"Encouraging women to pursue STEM employment is frequently touted as a means of reducing the gender wage gap. We examine whether the attributes of computer science workers–who account for nearly half of those working in STEM jobs–explain the persistent gender wage gap in computer science, using American Community Survey (ACS) data from 2009 to 2019. Our analysis focuses on working-age respondents between the ages of 22 and 60 who had a college degree and were employed full-time. We use ordinary least squares (OLS) regression of logged wages on observed characteristics, before turning to regression decomposition techniques to estimate what proportion of the gender wage gap would remain if men and women were equally rewarded for the same attributes–such as parenthood or marital status, degree field, or occupation. Women employed in computer science jobs earned about 86.6 cents for every dollar that men earned–a raw gender gap that is smaller than it is for the overall labor force (where it was 82 percent). Controlling for compositional effects (family attributes, degree field and occupation) narrows the gender wage gap, though women continue to earn 9.1 cents per dollar less than their male counterparts. But differential returns to family characteristics and human capital measures account for almost two-thirds of the gender wage gap in computer science jobs. Women working in computer science receive both a marriage and parenthood premium relative to unmarried or childless women, but these are significantly smaller than the bonus that married men and fathers receive over their childless and unmarried peers. Men also receive sizable wage premiums for having STEM degrees in computer science and engineering when they work in computer science jobs, advantages that do not accrue to women. Closing the gender wage gap in computer science requires treating women more like men, not just increasing their representation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Schrenker, Annekatrin (2023): Causal Misperceptions of the Part-Time Pay Gap. (DIW-Diskussionspapiere 2031), Berlin, 54 S.

Abstract

"This paper studies if workers infer from correlation about causal effects in the context of the part-time wage penalty. Differences in hourly pay between full-time and part-time workers are strongly driven by worker selection and systematic sorting. Ignoring these selection effects can lead to biased expectations about the consequences of working part-time on wages (’selection neglect bias’). Based on representative survey data from Germany, I document substantial misperceptions of the part-time wage gap. Workers strongly overestimate how much part-time workers in their occupation earn per hour, whereas they are approximately informed of mean full-time wage rates. Consistent with selection neglect, those who perceive large hourly pay differences between full-time and part-time workers also predict large changes in hourly wages when a given worker switches between full-time and part-time employment. Causal analyses using a survey experiment reveal that providing information about the raw part-time pay gap increases expectations about the full-time wage premium by factor 1.7, suggesting that individuals draw causal conclusions from observed correlations. De-biasing respondents by informing them about the influence of worker characteristics on observed pay gaps mitigates selection neglect. Subjective beliefs about the part-time/full-time wage gap are predictive of planned and actual transitions between full-time and part-time employment, necessitating the prevention of causal misperceptions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Setzepfand, Paul & Ipek Yükselen (2023): Weibliche Studierende geben sich potenziell mit deutlich niedrigeren Einstiegslöhnen zufrieden als ihre männlichen Kommilitonen (Serie " Bildung vor und im Erwerbsleben"). In: IAB-Forum H. 06.09.2023 Nürnberg. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20230906.01

Abstract

"Einer IAB-Befragung zufolge haben Studentinnen andere Lohnvorstellungen als Studenten. So würden sie einen um 15,6 Prozent niedrigeren monatlichen Einstiegslohn akzeptieren als ihre männlichen Kommilitonen. Auch beim erwarteten monatlichen Einstiegslohn zeigt sich ein geschlechtsspezifischer Unterschied in ähnlicher Größenordnung. Dies liegt nicht nur daran, dass Frauen häufig andere Studienfächer wählen als Männer." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Sondergeld, Virginia & Katharina Wrohlich (2023): Women in Management and the Gender Pay Gap. (DIW-Diskussionspapiere 2046), Berlin, 31 S.

Abstract

"We analyze the impact of women’s managerial representation on the gender pay gap among employees on the establishment level using German Linked-Employer-EmployeeData from the years 2004 to 2018. For identification of a causal effect we employ a panel model with establishment fixed effects and industry-specific time dummies. Our results show that a higher share of women in management significantly reduces the gender pay gap within the firm. An increase in the share of women in first-level management e.g. from zero to above 33 percent decreases the adjusted gender pay gap from a baseline of 15 percent by 1.2 percentage points, i.e. to roughly 14 percent. The effect is stronger for women in second-level than first-level management, indicating that women managers with closer interactions with their subordinates have a higher impact on the gender pay gap than women on higher management levels. The results are similar for East and West Germany, despite the lower gender pay gap and more gender egalitarian social norms in East Germany. From a policy perspective, we conclude that increasing the number of women in management positions has the potential to reduce the gender pay gap to a limited extent. However, further policy measures will be needed in order to fully close the gender gap in pay." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Van Hek, Margriet & Tanja van der Lippe (2023): Why Female Employees Do Not Earn More under a Female Manager: A Mixed-Method Study. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 37, H. 6, S. 1462-1479. DOI:10.1177/09500170221083971

Abstract

"Previous studies found contradictory results on whether women benefit in terms of earnings from having a female manager. This mixed-method study draws on survey data from the Netherlands to determine whether female employees have higher wages if they work under a female manager and combines these with data from interviews with Dutch female managers to interpret and contextualize its findings. The survey data show that having a female manager does not affect the wages of female (or male) employees in the Netherlands. The interviews revealed different ways in which managers can improve outcomes for female employees and suggest several reasons as to why some female managers experience a lack of motivation to enhance female employees’ earnings. This detailed focus on mechanisms that underlie female managers position to act as ‘cogs in the machine’ emphasizes the importance of incorporating context and looking at outcomes other than earnings in future research." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Vicari, Basha, Ann-Christin Bächmann & Aline Zucco (2023): Frauen üben seltener als Männer Tätigkeiten mit hohem Anforderungsniveau aus. In: IAB-Forum H. 25.04.2023 Nürnberg. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20230424.01

Abstract

"Frauen erreichen in Deutschland im Durchschnitt inzwischen höhere Bildungsabschlüsse als Männer. Dennoch hält sich die Lohnlücke zwischen den Geschlechtern hartnäckig. Dies liegt unter anderem daran, dass Frauen häufiger Tätigkeiten mit niedrigerem Anforderungsniveau ausüben als Männer. Ein Grund ist, dass sich die Geschlechter sehr unterschiedlich auf bestimmte Berufe verteilen. Zudem haben Frauen im Schnitt eine geringere Aufstiegswahrscheinlichkeit als Männer." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Young, Erin, Judy Wajcman & Laila Sprejer (2023): Mind the gender gap: Inequalities in the emergent professions of artificial intelligence (AI) and data science. In: New Technology, Work and Employment, Jg. 38, H. 3, S. 391-414. DOI:10.1111/ntwe.12278

Abstract

"The emergence of new prestigious professions in data science and artificial intelligence (AI) provide a rare opportunity to explore the gendered dynamics of technical careers as they are being formed. In this paper, we contribute to the literature on gender inequality in digital work by curating and analysing a unique cross‐country data set. We use innovative data science methodology to investigate the nature of work and skills in these under‐researched fields. Our research finds persistent disparities in jobs, qualifications, seniority, industry, attrition and even self‐confidence in these fields. We identify structural inequality in data and AI, with career trajectories of professionals differentiated by gender, reflecting the broader history of computing. Our work is original in illuminating gendering processes within elite high‐tech jobs as they are being configured. Paying attention to these nascent fields is crucial if we are to ensure that women take their rightful place at forefront of technological innovation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Zacchia, Giulia & Izaskun Zuazu (2023): The Wage Effect of Workplace Sexual Harassment: Evidence for Women in Europe. (Working papers / Institute for New Economic Thinking 205),: Institute for New Economic Thinking 27 S. DOI:10.36687/inetwp205

Abstract

"This article contributes to the literature on wage discrimination by examining the consequences of sexual harassment in the workplace on wages for women in Europe. We model the empirical relationship between sexual harassment risk and wages for European women employees using individual-level data provided by the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS, Eurostat). We find that sexual harassment risk has a negative and statistically significant effect on wages of -0.03% on average for women in Europe. However, our empirical analysis uncovers the importance of considering the dynamics of workplace power relations: analyzing individual-level data, we find evidence of a higher negative impact of sexual harassment risk on wages for women working in counter-stereotypical occupations. We conclude that the wage effect of hostile working conditions, mainly in terms of sexual harassment risk in the workplace, should be considered and monitored as a first critical step in making women be less vulnerable at work and increasing their bargaining power, thereby reducing inequalities in working conditions and pay in Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Zajac, Tomasz, Iga Magda, M. Bożykowski, Agnieszka Chłoń-Domińczak & M. Jasiński (2023): Gender Pay Gaps across STEM Fields of Study. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16613), Bonn, 31 S.

Abstract

"Gender pay gaps in earnings are well-documented in the literature. However, new factors contributing to women's lower earnings have emerged and remain under-researched. Educational choices are among them. We use a rich administrative dataset from Poland, a Central Eastern European country with high tertiary education enrolment and high female employment rates among young women, to study gender pay gaps among tertiary education graduates with degrees in different fields of study while paying particular attention to STEM fields graduates (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). We find that already in the first year after graduation, women earn over 20% less than men. This gap widens over time. We also find significant variation across different STEM fields both in the size of the gender pay gap and in how it changes over time. The gap is largest among mathematics graduates, at over 25%; while it does not exceed 3% among chemical and Earth sciences graduates. As these differences narrow only slightly within the first four years of graduates' working careers, policymakers' efforts to increase the number of women earning STEM degrees may not be enough to achieve gender pay equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Zimmermann, Florian & Matthias Collischon (2023): Do Organizational Policies Narrow Gender Inequality? Novel Evidence from Longitudinal Employer-Employee Data. In: Sociological Science, Jg. 10, S. 47-81., 2022-10-29. DOI:10.15195/v10.a2

Abstract

"Scholars have long proposed that gender inequalities in wages are narrowed by organizational policies to advance gender equality. Using cross-sectional data, scarce previous research has found an association between gender wage inequalities and these organizational policies, but it remains unclear whether this correlation represents a causal effect. We provide first evidence on this topic by using longitudinal linked employer–employee data covering almost 1,500 firms and nearly one million employee observations in Germany. We investigate whether and how organizational policies affect gender gaps using firm fixed-effects regressions. Our results show that organizational policies reduce the gender wage gap by around nine percent overall. Investigating channels, we show that this effect is entirely driven by advancing women already employed at a given firm, whereas we find no effect on firms’ composition and wages of new hires. Furthermore, we show that our findings are not driven by potential sources of bias, such as reverse causality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Europäische Kommission. Generaldirektion Beschäftigung, Soziales und Integration (2023): Quarterly Review of Employment and Social Developments in Europe (ESDE) - April 2023. (Employment and social developments in Europe : Quarterly review), Luxembourg, 25 S.

Abstract

"The thematic part of this review focuses on gender segregation in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and healthcare occupations across EU Member States. This is an important topic in the context of the upcoming European Year of Skills, because gender segregation can both limit the efficiency of matching labour supply with demand and results in suboptimal use of women’s and men’s talents. The thematic focus shows that both STEM and healthcare occupations are heavily gender segregated in nearly all Member States. It highlights that in many countries, much of the existing segregation is explained by the fact that female and male workers tend to hold qualifications in different study fields – this applies particularly in the case of STEM occupations. Finally, it demonstrates that in most Member States, desegregation offers an important opportunity to attract new workers into STEM and healthcare occupations facing shortages." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

OECD (2023): Reporting Gender Pay Gaps in OECD Countries. Guidance for Pay Transparency Implementation, Monitoring and Reform. (Gender Equality at Work), Paris, 203 S. DOI:10.1787/ea13aa68-en

Abstract

"Pay transparency policies are gaining momentum throughout the OECD. Over half of OECD countries require private sector firms to report their gender pay gap statistics regularly to stakeholders like employees, employee representatives, the government, and/or the public. Gender pay gap reporting, equal pay audits and other pay transparency policies help advance gender equality at the workplace, as these measures present up-to-date information on a firm’s gender pay gap, encourage employers to offer equal pay for work of equal value, and give individual workers and their representatives valuable insights to fight for pay equity. This report presents the most thorough stocktaking to date of gender pay gap reporting policies and evaluations across OECD countries, and offers guidance to countries interested in introducing, reforming and monitoring their pay transparency systems to promote equal pay for women and men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Adamecz-Völgyi, Anna & Nikki Shure (2022): The gender gap in top jobs – The role of overconfidence. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 79. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102283

Abstract

"There is a large gender gap in the probability of being in a “top job” in mid-career. Top jobs bring higher earnings, and also have more job security and better career trajectories. Recent literature has raised the possibility that some of this gap may be attributable to women not “leaning in” while men are more overconfident in their abilities. We use longitudinal data from childhood into mid-career and construct a measure of overconfidence using multiple measures of objective cognitive ability and subjective estimated ability. Our measure confirms previous findings that men are more overconfident than women. We then use linear regression and decomposition techniques to account for the gender gap in top jobs including our measure of overconfidence. Our results show that men being more overconfident explains 5–11 percent of the gender gap in top job employment. This indicates that while overconfidence matters for gender inequality in the labor market and has implications for how firms recruit and promote workers, other individual, structural, and societal factors play a larger role." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2022 Elsevier) ((en))

Zitatform

Albanesi, Stefania & María José Prados (2022): Slowing Women's Labor Force Participation: The Role of Income Inequality. (HCEO working paper / Human capital and economic opportunity global working group 2022,037), Chicago, Ill., 47 S.

Abstract

"The entry of married women into the labor force and the rise in women's relative wages are amongst the most notable economic developments of the twentieth century. The growth in these indicators was particularly pronounced in the 1970s and 1980s, but it stalled since the early 1990s, especially for college graduates. In this paper, we argue that the discontinued growth in female labor supply and wages since the 1990s is a consequence of growing inequality. Our hypothesis is that the growth in top incomes for men generated a negative income effect on the labor supply of their spouses, which reduced their participation and wages. We show that the slowdown in participation and wage growth was concentrated among women married to highly educated and high income husbands, whose earnings grew dramatically over this period. We then develop a model of household labor supply with returns to experience that qualitatively reproduces this effect. A calibrated version of the model can account for a large fraction of the decline relative to trend in married women's participation in 1995-2005 particularly for college women. The model can also account for the rise in the gender wage gap for college graduates relative to trend in the same period." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Albanesi, Stefania & María José Prados (2022): Slowing Women’s Labor Force Participation: The Role of Income Inequality. (NBER working paper 29675), Cambridge, Mass, 48 S. DOI:10.3386/w29675

Abstract

"The entry of married women into the labor force and the rise in women's relative wages are amongst the most notable economic developments of the twentieth century. The growth in these indicators was particularly pronounced in the 1970s and 1980s, but it stalled since the early 1990s, especially for college graduates. In this paper, we argue that the discontinued growth in female labor supply and wages since the 1990s is a consequence of growing inequality. Our hypothesis is that the growth in top incomes for men generated a negative income effect on the labor supply of their spouses, which reduced their participation and wages. We show that the slowdown in participation and wage growth was concentrated among women married to highly educated and high income husbands, whose earnings grew dramatically over this period. We then develop a model of household labor supply with returns to experience that qualitatively reproduces this effect. A calibrated version of the model can account for a large fraction of the decline relative to trend in married women's participation in 1995-2005 particularly for college women. The model can also account for the rise in the gender wage gap for college graduates relative to trend in the same period." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Albrecht, Clara & Britta Rude (2022): Wo steht Deutschland 2022 bei der Gleichstellung der Geschlechter? (im Erscheinen). In: Ifo-Schnelldienst, S. 1-11.

Abstract

"Deutschland hat in vielen Bereichen der Gleichberechtigung zwischen Mann und Frau in den letzten Jahrzehnten Fortschritte gemacht. Allerdings ist es in allen Dimensionen immer noch weit hinter den besten europäischen Ländern zurück. Vor allem hat sich die Anzahl der Frauen in Führungspositionen in Politik, Wirtschaft und Unternehmen kaum vergrößert. Auch in der unbezahlten Fürsorge und in der tertiären Bildung gibt es großen Handlungsbedarf. Bei den Indikatoren zu Gewalt gegen Frauen schneidet Deutschland im Vergleich zu allen anderen Indikatoren besonders schlecht ab, obwohl die wirtschaftlichen Kosten hier hoch sind. Die vorhandene Kluft zwischen den Geschlechtern könnte mit falschen Anreizsystemen, Glaubenssätzen und Sexismus zusammenhängen. Frauenquoten und Initiativen wie der »Girls' Day« sind nicht ausreichend, um die immer noch anhaltenden Defizite in der Gleichberechtigung der Geschlechter zu beseitigen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Alcidi, Cinzia & Alexandre Ounnas (2022): Can the Pay Transparency Directive close the gender pay gap? (CEPS policy insights 2022-06), Brussels, 10 S.

Abstract

"Today, our thoughts go out to all women who have had to flee Ukraine to escape horror and to save their children, and to all those women who have remained behind to help defend their homeland. To those men and women who have the chance to live in (still) peaceful EU countries, we want to recall that gender equality remains a top priority. In the EU, major progress has been made in advancing women’s rights over the past 25 years but challenges still remain, especially on the labour market. The gender pay gap is definitely not yet closed. Despite progress over the past few years, women in the EU are still paid less than men for equal work of equal value. In 2018, the gap was on average 14 %, and it is likely to have increased during the pandemic. In 2019, President von der Leyen put gender equality among the six priorities of her new Commission. In March 2021 the Commission published a proposal for a Directive to strengthen the application of the principle of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value between men and women through pay transparency and enforcement mechanisms. Is pay transparency important to close the gender pay gap? The short answer is yes. Over time women have been closing gaps relative to men in education, labour market participation, and attitude; areas which typically (used to) explain the gap. Yet pay differences persist. New research points to within-company dynamics as one of the most significant contributors to the pay gap. The directive proposes to address it through transparency and information sharing. This is expected to reduce the gender pay gap, even though the implementation, and in particular the operationalisation of the concept of equal work, will pose challenges to companies, and eventually can negatively weigh on the overall benefits." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Avram, Silvia & Daria Popova (2022): Do taxes and transfers reduce gender income inequality? Evidence from eight European welfare states. In: Social science research, Jg. 102. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102644

Abstract

"We examine how taxes and transfers affect the incomes of men and women. Using microsimulation and intra-household income splitting rules, we measure the differences in the level and composition of individual disposable income by gender in eight European countries covering various welfare regime types. We quantify the extent to which taxes and transfers can counterbalance the gender gap in earnings, as well as which policy instruments contribute most to reducing the gender income gap. We find that with the exception of old-age public pensions, all taxes and transfers significantly reduce gender income inequality but cannot compensate for high gender earnings gaps. Our findings suggest that gender income equality is more likely to be achieved by promoting the universal/dual breadwinner model, whereby women's labour force participation and wages are on a par with men. To achieve this, men will likely need to work less and care more." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2022 Elsevier) ((en))

Zitatform

Bachan, Ray & Alex Bryson (2022): One high-paid occupation where the gender wage gap has disappeared. Vice Chancellors of the UK’s universities. (VoxEU columns / Centre for Economic Policy Research), London, 6 S.

Zitatform

Bachmann, Ronald & Myrielle Gonschor (2022): Technological Progress, Occupational Structure and Gender Gaps in the German Labour Market. (IZA discussion paper 15419), Bonn, 39 S.

Abstract

"We analyze if technological progress and the corresponding change in the occupational structure have improved the relative position of women in the labour market. We show that the share of women rises most strongly in non-routine cognitive and manual occupations, but declines in routine occupations. While the share of women also rises relatively strongly in high-paying occupations, womens' individual-level wages lag behind which implies within-occupation gender wage gaps. A decomposition exercise shows that composition effects with respect to both individual and job characteristics can explain the rise of female shares in the top tier of the labour market to an extent. However, the unexplained part of the decomposition is sizeable, indicating that developments such as technological progress are relevant." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bamieh, Omar & Lennart Ziegler (2022): Can Wage Transparency Alleviate Gender Sorting in the Labor Market? (IZA discussion paper 15363), Bonn, 20 S.

Abstract

"Wage decompositions suggest that a large share of the gender wage gap can be explained by differences in occupation and employer choices. If female workers are not well informed about these pay differences, increasing wage transparency might alleviate the gender gap. We test this hypothesis by examining the impact of the 2011 Pay Transparency Law in Austria, which requires companies to state a wage figure in job advertisements. For the analysis, we combine vacancy postings from the largest Austrian job board with social security spells that record the gender of new hires. To compare the pay level of vacancies before and after the reform, we predict wage postings using detailed occupation-employer cells, which explain about 75 percent of the variation in posted wages. While we estimate a substantial gender wage gap of 15 log points, pay transparency did not affect gender sorting into better-paid occupation and firms. To study job transitions, we focus on a subsample of workers whose previous employment is also observed. Our estimates show that switching occupations is common, and it often entails significant wage changes. Yet, in line with our main estimates, we do not find that women become more likely to switch to better-paid jobs. We interpret the absence of effects as evidence that limited transparency does not explain the persistence of gender sorting in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bar-Haim, Eyal, Louis Chauvel, Janet Gornick & Anne Hartung (2022): The Persistence of the Gender Earnings Gap: Cohort Trends and the Role of Education in Twelve Countries. (SocArXiv papers), [Charlottesville, VA], 36 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/dkc76

Abstract

"Studying twelve countries over 30 years, we examine whether women’s educational expansion has translated into a narrowing of the gender gap in earnings when including persons with zero earnings. As educational attainment is cohort-dependent, an Age-Period-Cohort analysis is most appropriate in our view. Using the micro data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database, we show that while, in terms of attainment of tertiary education, women have caught up and often even outperform men, substantial gender differences in our earnings measure persist in all countries. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method in an innovative age-period-cohort approach, we demonstrate that the role of education in explaining gender earnings differences has been limited and even decreased over cohorts. We also conclude that, when including persons not receiving earnings, earnings differences at levels far from gender equality will likely persist in the future, even if the “rise of women” in terms of education continues – as the share of women in higher education increases and the returns to education in particular for women declines." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))