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Cortés, Patricia, Jisoo Hwang, Jessica Pan & Uta Schönberg (2026): Gender Norms and the Labor Market. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 34716), Cambridge, Mass, 42 S.

Abstract

"Despite substantial convergence in men's and women's economic roles, gender gaps in labor market outcomes persist across countries. This article provides a unified framework for understanding how gender norms shape economic behavior, distinguishing between internalized norms—preferences and beliefs tied to gender identity—and external norms arising from peer pressure and social coordination. We first document cross-country and within-country variation in gender attitudes, alongside gradual but uneven shifts toward more egalitarian views. We then review empirical evidence on the origins, persistence, and transmission of gender norms, and their effects on human capital accumulation, labor supply, wages, and policy take-up. The review highlights both the durability of gender norms and the mechanisms through which policies, institutions, and media can induce norm change, with implications for the design of effective interventions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Herzberg-Druker, Efrat (2025): Couples' division of paid work and rising income inequality: A study of 21 OECD countries. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 99. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2025.101084

Abstract

"Numerous scholars have explored the association between women's changing employment patterns and the changing income inequality in recent decades. While most studies indicate that increased women's employment reduces household inequality, a few suggest the opposite effect. This research investigated whether shifts in the division of paid work (i.e., changes in the working hours) among heterosexual couples, as compared to changes in women's work alone, contribute to changes in income inequality. It also examined whether the selection of couples into the different types of division of paid work based on their level of education is a mechanism underlying the growing inequality. Based on counterfactual analyses of data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS), encompassing 21 OECD countries, the findings demonstrate shifts in couples' division of paid work, particularly the increase in fulltime dual-earner households, are associated with rising income inequality in most countries studied. However, changes in educational attainment were not found to be the mechanism underlying the association between changes in couples' division of paid work and changes in income inequality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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(2025): Gender Equality in a Changing World. Taking Stock and Moving Forward. (Gender Equality at Work), Paris: OECD Publishing, 311 S. DOI:10.1787/e808086f-en

Abstract

"Despite significant progress over the last century, women still fare worse than men in most economic, social and political outcomes in EU and OECD countries. Drawing on novel data and using a lifecycle approach, this report presents a comprehensive stocktaking of how women, men, girls and boys are faring across seven key policy areas – education and skills, paid and unpaid work, leadership and representation, health, gender-based violence, the green transition and the digital transitions. The challenges are significant. Recognising that closing gender gaps requires serious and co-ordinated policy commitments and actions, this report presents countries’ good practices in gender mainstreaming, encourages breaking down silos, and identifies useful policy combinations to advance gender equality. A conceptual framework is included for governments seeking to assess their own legal, policy and budgetary measures, to help countries transform gender equality commitments into action." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Dinale, Daniel (2024): The positive relationship between female employment and fertility rates: The role of family benefits expenditure and gender-role ideologies. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 34, H. 4, S. 404-418. DOI:10.1177/09589287241252008

Abstract

"This article interrogates the impacts of different types of family benefits expenditures on the positive relationship between female employment and fertility rates in developed welfare states. It does this by theorizing how these family benefits align with welfare state regimes’ preferences for different normative gender-role ideologies. Rather than treating family benefits as a monolith, this article investigates the impact of disaggregated expenditures in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) family policy database (1. services and in-kind benefits, 2. child-related cash benefits and 3. tax-based financial support for children) on both female employment and fertility rates. This is done using pooled time-series analysis covering the period 2000–9. The analysis yields evidence that expenditure most reflecting a ‘full egalitarian’ gender ideology including service and in-kind benefit provision has the most positive association with female employment and fertility due to an emphasis on defamiliarization. The picture for child-related cash benefits is mixed due to the presence of cash transfer provisions not employment-contingent captured in the indicator. In contrast, tax-based financial support for children harms female employment, reflecting a maternalistic ‘traditional’ ideological orientation, but is positive for fertility rates indicating a moderate pro-natal effect of tax-based financial support for children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fluchtmann, Jonas, Mark Keese & Willem Adema (2024): Gender equality and economic growth. Past progress and future potential. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 304), Paris, 45 S. DOI:10.1787/fb0a0a93-en

Abstract

"Despite women’s increased participation in the labor market significantly contributing to past economic growth, persistent gender gaps across OECD labour markets hinder full realization of the potential gains of women’s economic participation. This paper analyses the economic implications of these gaps and evaluates the potential for future growth through greater gender equality in labor market outcomes. Utilising two methodological frameworks, the paper first employs growth accounting to measure the contribution of women's employment to past economic growth. The paper then uses a simplified version of the OECD Long-Term Model in conjunction with projections on future labor force dynamics to estimate the impact of greater gender equality on the labor market. These analyses provide insight into the potentially significant economic benefits of closing persistent gender gaps across OECD countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Frey, Valérie, Jasmin Thomas & Lyydia Alajääskö (2024): Gender gaps in perceptions of social protection: Insights from the OECD Risks that Matter Survey. In: International social security review, Jg. 77, H. 4, S. 23-48. DOI:10.1111/issr.12374

Abstract

"Aufgrund ihres geringeren Verbleibens im Arbeitsmarkt sowie ihres niedrigeren Einkommens verspüren Frauen systematisch eine höhere finanzielle Unsicherheit als Männer in allen Mitgliedsländern der Organisation für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (OECD). Ähnliche Geschlechterungleichheiten treten bei der Wahrnehmung von Sozialschutzsystemen auf: Hier vertrauen Frauen viel weniger als Männer ihrer Fähigkeit hinsichtlich des Zugangs zu Leistungen und Dienstleistungen sowie des Erhalts angemessener Einkommensunterstützung, sofern sie diese benötigen, sowohl im erwerbsfähigen als auch im hohen Alter. Die Ergebnisse der länderübergreifenden OECD-Umfrage „Risks that Matter“ (Risiken, die wichtig sind – RTM) belegen, dass in allen Ländern durchschnittlich etwa die Hälfte der Frauen das Gefühl hat, im Bedarfsfall keinen leichten Zugang zu öffentlichen Leistungen zu bekommen, im Gegensatz zu 43 Prozent der Männer. Diese wahrgenommene Nichtzugänglichkeit ist wahrscheinlich ein Spiegelbild der Geschlechterungleichheiten bei den wahrgenommenen „Kosten durch Ärger “, die mit den Anträgen zu Sozialprogrammen und der Übernahme des Verwaltungsaufwands im Haushalt verbunden sind, sowie auch der niedrigeren Sozialversicherungsbeiträge von Frauen. Dieser Artikel beleuchtet die Geschlechterungleichheiten im Entwurf von Sozialprogrammen und zeigt Möglichkeiten für Regierungen auf, um bei der Verbesserung des Zugangs und der Angemessenheit des Sozialschutzes die Geschlechterfrage besser zu berücksichtigen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons)

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Irmen, Andreas, Rana Cömertpay & Anastasia Litina (2024): Societal Aging and Attitudes towards Women in the Labor Market: Evidence from European Countries. In: Economics Bulletin, Jg. 44, H. 4, S. 1326-1332.

Abstract

"This paper examines the relationship between societal aging and attitudes toward women in the labor market. We hypothesize that, up to a certain point, these attitudes are more favorable as societies grow ”older”. In these societies, people may better recognize that an increase in female labor force participation can help mitigate the challenges that societal aging imposes on the welfare state. To test this hypothesis, we conduct a multilevel analysis of individuals from 25 European OECD countries between 2004 and 2017, using the Old Age Dependency Ratio (OADR) as a proxy for societal aging and gender-related questions from the European Social Survey (ESS). Our findings reveal a hump-shaped relationship between societal aging and attitudes towards women in the labor market. In the early stages of demographic change, particularly in countries with a rising OADR, positive attitudes can be attributed to the recognition that an aging population necessitates a larger working-age population, making women a logical resource for expansion, thus fostering more favorable norms. However, as societal aging progresses further, conservative views associated with older populations begin to dominate, leading to a deterioration in gender norms. in the labor market. In the early stages of demographic change, particularly in countries with a rising OADR, positive attitudes can be attributed to the recognition that an aging population necessitates a larger working-age population, making women a logical resource for expansion, thus fostering more favorable norms. However, as societal aging progresses further, conservative views associated with older populations begin to dominate, leading to a deterioration in gender norms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Laschinski, Miriam (2024): Defamilization? Not for everyone. Unequal labor-market participation among informal caregivers in Europe. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 34, H. 4, S. 419-436. DOI:10.1177/09589287241251990

Abstract

"Growing care dependencies among the elderly due to population ageing in Europe challenge the labor-market participation of informal caregivers. While familiarized care regimes incentivize family caregiving by providing many cash-for-care-benefits, resulting in reduced labor supply, defamiliarized care regimes allocate more public spending to care infrastructure, alleviating the care responsibilities placed on family members. At the same time, care provision on the micro-level is distributed unequally across gender, age, and socioeconomic status. The question then emerges: Does the labor-market participation of informal caregivers vary between and within countries depending on the social-expenditure policy of welfare states? To answer this research question, a multilevel design was used, employing SHARE data and macro-indicators from OECD and Eurostat databases. The results reveal higher probabilities of labour-market participation for informal caregivers in general when social expenditures on formal care infrastructure are higher. However, labor-market participation was observed as being unequally distributed among the heterogeneous group of persons with and without caregiving duties. Women and individuals of lower socioeconomic status did not benefit from social expenditures in the same way as their counterparts, leading to lower levels of labor-market participation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2024): Taxing Wages 2024. Tax and Gender through the Lens of the Second Earner. (Taxing wages / OECD 2024), Paris, 676 S. DOI:10.1787/dbcbac85-en

Abstract

"This annual publication provides details of taxes paid on wages in OECD countries. This year’s edition focuses on fiscal incentives for second earners in the OECD and how tax policy might contribute to gender gaps in labor market outcomes. For the year 2023, the report also examines personal income taxes and social security contributions paid by employees, social security contributions and payroll taxes paid by employers, and cash benefits received by workers. It illustrates how these taxes and benefits are calculated in each member country and examines how they impact household incomes. The results also enable quantitative cross-country comparisons of labor cost levels and the overall tax and benefit position of single persons and families on different levels of earnings. The publication shows average and marginal effective tax rates on labor costs for eight different household types, which vary by income level and household composition (single persons, single parents, one or two earner couples with or without children). The average tax rates measure the part of gross wage earnings or labour costs taken in tax and social security contributions, both before and after cash benefits, and the marginal tax rates the part of a small increase of gross earnings or labour costs that is paid in these levies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Adema, Willem, Jonas Fluchtmann, Alexandre Lloyd & Valentina Patrini (2023): Paid parental leave: Big differences for mothers and fathers. In: OECD Statistics blog, S. 1-13.

Abstract

"Employment-protected paid parental leave is a central element of family policy in most OECD countries. Paid parental leave primarily aims to support parents and children by letting both parents take time off paid work to care for a very young child. This is good for many things, including household finances, child development and parental well-being. Paid leave policies can also promote a better sharing of unpaid work within households by encouraging fathers to use their leave entitlements and get more involved in childcare. Data on availability and use of paid leave entitlements is crucial for understanding the effectiveness of such policies. However, the design of paid leave policy varies markedly across countries, which complicates measuring progress in its use. The OECD Family Database provides an overview of parental leave systems and their use across OECD countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Andre, Christophe, Orsetta Causa, Emilia Soldani, Douglas Sutherland & Filiz Unsal (2023): Promoting gender equality to strengthen economic growth and resilience. (OECD Economics Department working papers 1776), Paris, 23 S. DOI:10.1787/54090c29-en

Abstract

"Women's employment rates and wages are still lagging those of men across OECD countries, with average employment and wage gaps now around 15% and 12% respectively. Gaps narrowed at a relatively modest pace over the past decade, calling for further policy action. A lack of affordable high-quality childcare is often an obstacle to women's participation in the labor market and notably to working full time. A very unequal sharing of parental leave between parents and challenges upon return to work further hampers women's careers. Biases in the tax system may discourage women from working in some countries. Women face disadvantage in accessing management positions and entrepreneurship. A range of policies can help reduce gender gaps, including better childcare provision, incentivizing parents to better share parental leave, re-skilling and upskilling on return from parental leave, encouraging gender equality within firms, integration programs for foreign-born women, promoting women entrepreneurship and financial inclusion, and levelling taxation for second earners. Moreover, the multiple dimensions and root causes of gender inequality call for mainstreaming gender across policy domains." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Azzollini, Leo, Richard Breen & Brian Nolan (2023): From gender equality to household earnings equality: The role of women’s labour market outcomes across OECD countries. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 86. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2023.100823

Abstract

"We assess the impact that full gender equality in the labour market would have on earnings inequality between households, and then decompose that impact by looking separately at the roles played by gender gaps in employment, hours, and pay. We do this by applying a reweighting method to LIS data for 22 OECD countries, across North America, Europe, and Australia. We find that full equality in earnings and employment between women and men would reduce household earnings inequality considerably, with the most substantial reductions coming from closing the gender gap in employment as opposed to closing the gaps in pay and hours worked. A 10% counterfactual decrease in the gender employment gap (relative to the country baseline) is associated with an average 0.6% decline in the Gini for household earnings inequality. Reducing the gender employment gap is thus the pathway through which greater gender equality may most strongly mitigate overall earnings inequality among households: these two key goals for contemporary societies can be pursued simultaneously." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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Bratti, Massimiliano (2023): Fertility postponement and labor market outcomes. Postponed childbearing improves women's labor market outcomes but may reduce overall fertility. (IZA world of labor 117), Bonn, 11 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.117.v2

Abstract

"Die zeitliche Verlagerung der Mutterschaft kann sich für Frauen ökonomisch positiv auswirken, indem sie vor der Geburt ihr Humankapital vergrößern, ihre Erwerbsbeteiligung intensivieren und ihr Einkommen steigern können. Umgekehrt kann dies die Realisierung von (weiteren) Kinderwünschen verhindern. Empirisch lässt sich zeigen, dass eine Verschiebung der Mutterschaft Arbeitsmarktnähe und Lohnniveau deutlich erhöht, zugleich aber weniger Kinder zu haben wahrscheinlicher macht. Hier sollte die Familienpolitik ansetzen: durch öffentliche Kinderbetreuungsangebote, finanzielle Anreize für Firmen, die betriebliche Angebote schaffen, sowie durch Elternzeitprogramme, die die Kinderbetreuungsaufgaben gerechter auf Väter und Mütter verteilen. Facebook Twitter" (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Lee, Cheol-Sung & Taekyeong Goh (2023): Union brokerage and the gender gap in the labor market. A cross-national comparative study of associational networks and gendered labor force participation in OECD countries. In: International Journal of Comparative Sociology, Jg. 64, H. 1, S. 22-56. DOI:10.1177/00207152221108139

Abstract

"This article explores the role of union-centered brokerage in promoting women’s labor force participation in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries for the last three decades. Using two measures of brokerage, a union’s core brokerage role, and its general brokerage role, we attempted to capture the processes by which union activists mobilize and extend women’s rights in associational fields. Then, we tested our key argument that union-centered brokerage plays the most effective role among the different brokerage types in channeling women’s interests by transforming them into wider class-linked or cross-class concerns. Cross-national and comparative case studies demonstrate that union-led brokerage promotes greater presence of women in the economy. Our findings revealed that, when controlling for economic, regional, and cultural factors, both types of brokerage roles impact women’s participation in the labor market and their participation compared to that of men. The overall findings underscore the importance of creating and utilizing solidarity structures through effective channeling mechanisms in civic associational fields between labor-based organizations and other reform-oriented civic groups in achieving egalitarian socioeconomic goals." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2023): International Migration Outlook 2023. (International migration outlook 47), Paris, 403 S. DOI:10.1787/b0f40584-en

Abstract

"The 2023 edition of International Migration Outlook analyses recent developments in migration movements and the labour market inclusion of immigrants in OECD countries. It also monitors recent policy changes in migration governance and integration in OECD countries. This edition includes two special chapters on the labour market integration of migrant mothers and on fertility patterns among migrant populations in OECD countries. The Outlook also includes country notes and a detailed statistical annex." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2023): Reporting Gender Pay Gaps in OECD Countries. Guidance for Pay Transparency Implementation, Monitoring and Reform. (Gender Equality at Work), Paris, 203 S. DOI:10.1787/ea13aa68-en

Abstract

"Pay transparency policies are gaining momentum throughout the OECD. Over half of OECD countries require private sector firms to report their gender pay gap statistics regularly to stakeholders like employees, employee representatives, the government, and/or the public. Gender pay gap reporting, equal pay audits and other pay transparency policies help advance gender equality at the workplace, as these measures present up-to-date information on a firm’s gender pay gap, encourage employers to offer equal pay for work of equal value, and give individual workers and their representatives valuable insights to fight for pay equity. This report presents the most thorough stocktaking to date of gender pay gap reporting policies and evaluations across OECD countries, and offers guidance to countries interested in introducing, reforming and monitoring their pay transparency systems to promote equal pay for women and men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ceballos, Martha, Annick Masselot & Richard Watt (2022): Pay Transparency across Countries and Legal Systems. In: CESifo forum, Jg. 23, H. 2, S. 3-11.

Abstract

"The article proceeds as follows. In the next section, we detail the legislative experiences of the different countries that are included in our data set. The third section employs latent class analysis to group the different countries in our data set according to their gender pay gap and their pay transparency legislation. The fourth section posits a new perspective on the gender pay gap of non-legislating countries that leads to a theory (and indeed a value, at least for the countries in our data set) of a “natural rate” of the gender pay gap and a useful separation between countries with pay transparency legislation in place – those that out-perform the benchmark of not legislating, and those that under-perform relative to that same benchmark. Together with our latent class analysis groupings, this allows us to draw conclusions regarding the types of pay transparency law that appear to be more successful in the endeavor of reducing the gender pay gap. Finally, the fifth section concludes." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense (2022): No activation without reconciliation? The interplay between ALMP and ECEC in relation to women employment unemployment and inactivity in 30 OECD countries 1985-2018. In: Social Policy and Administration, Jg. 56, H. 5, S. 808-826. DOI:10.1111/spol.12806

Abstract

"Comparative welfare state research as examined the outcomes of active labour market policies (ALMP) and work-family reconciliation policies by and large been separately. As a result, potential complementarities between these policy areas have received scant attention empirically. Using macro-level data, this study answers the question to what extent, and in which way, governments' efforts in ALMP and in early childhood education and care (ECEC) services are complementary to each other in promoting women's employment rates and reducing women's unemployment and inactivity rates in 30 OECD countries from 1985 to 2018. The article theorises about how the various policies that constitute a welfare state relate to each other, distinguishing between pluralism, complementarity and substitutability. These findings provide support for the notion of welfare pluralism, in the sense that ALMP and ECEC policies work together in improving women's employment rates in slightly different ways: ALMP achieve this through reducing women's unemployment rates, whereas ECEC also achieve lower inactivity rates for women. There was, however, more support for the notion of substitution rather than complementarity: the marginal benefits associated with an increase in either ALMP or ECEC were smaller in the context of large investments in the other policy. In other words, the highest rates of women's employment, and the lowest rates of unemployment and inactivity, are found in countries with large investments in both ALMP and ECEC, but such higher investments are associated with diminishing returns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense (2022): No activation without reconciliation? The interplay between ALMP and ECEC in relation to women employment unemployment and inactivity in 30 OECD countries 1985-2018. (Working papers / Institute for Evaluation of Labour Market and Education Policy 2022,04), Uppsala, 36 S.

Abstract

"Comparative welfare state research has mostly examined the outcomes of active labour market policies and work-family reconciliation policies separately. As a result, potential complementarities between these policy areas have received scant attention empirically. Using macro-level data, this study answers the question to what extent, and in which way, governments' efforts in active labour market policies (ALMP) and in early childhood education and care (ECEC) services are correlated with women's employment rates, women's unemployment and inactivity rates in 30 OECD countries from 1985 to 2018. The article theorizes about how the various policies that constitute a welfare state relate to each other, distinguishing between pluralism, complementarity and substitutability. I interpret the empirical findings as being consistent with welfare pluralism, in the sense that ALMP and ECEC policies work together in improving women's employment rates in slightly different ways: ALMP is associated with low female unemployment rates, whereas ECEC also is associated with lower inactivity rates for women. There was, however, more support for the notion of substitution rather than complementarity: the marginal benefits associated with an increase in either ALMP or ECEC were smaller in the context of large investments in the other policy. In other words, the highest rates of women's employment, and the lowest rates of unemployment and inactivity, are found in countries with large investments in both ALMP and ECEC, but such higher investments are associated with diminishing returns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Rebollo-Sanz, Yolanda F. & Sara De La Rica (2022): Gender gaps in skills and labor market outcomes: evidence from the PIAAC. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 20, H. 2, S. 333-371. DOI:10.1007/s11150-020-09523-w

Abstract

"Our paper makes the first attempt to address the empirical relationRicship between cognitive skills and gender gaps in labor market performance. We do so in a cross-country setting. To that end we use the PIAAC dataset, which contains information on OECD and non-OECD economies. Firstly, we document the existence of gender gaps in cognitive skills for numeracy, which are found to be around 2.5–4.6% and increase with age. These gaps remain even when comparing men and women within the same level and field of study. Next, we document sizable gender gaps in labor market outcomes, such as Labor Force Participation and hourly wages—around 18%, increase with age and rise remarkably for parents. Math skills are positively and strongly associated with these two labor market outcomes and its contribution to explain gender gaps, although significant, is limited—between 10 15% at most—in particular for parents." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Rendall, Michelle (2022): The Link between Gender Gaps and Employment Polarization. In: CESifo forum, Jg. 23, H. 2, S. 12-16.

Abstract

"The increase in employment shares both at the bottom and at the top of the skill distribution, combined with a decline in the middle, has been extensively documented for the US and many OECD economies since the 1980s. This observed employment polarization has become a well-known stylized fact. Less well known are the characteristics of employment polarization by gender, as polarization is usually studied at an aggregate level. Nonetheless, when studying employment polarization, in Cerina et al. (2021) we also consider one of the most important and dramatic social phenomena of the 20th century: the rise in female labor force participation, coupled with a rise in broad college attainment and a closing of the gender wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Silverberg, Laurie, Jutta Allmendinger, Michelle Boden, Frederic Jage-Bowler & Johanna Schleyer (Hrsg.) (2022): Gender Equality Advisory Council Report 2022: A shared vision for gender equality. Berlin, 108 S.

Abstract

"The 2022 GEAC Report describes the development of the G7 on the path to gender equality. Through both essays and data, it offers a clear picture of gender equality within the G7, highlights success stories, identifies areas for improvement, and provides evidence-based recommendations to the leaders of the G7. The first half of the report focuses on seven areas of action identified by the GEAC 2022; the second half offers a milestone in the work of the GEAC: the first-ever publication of the G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps. This yearʼs GEAC focused on seven themes: Funding; Ownership, Entrepreneurship, and Investment; The Care Economy; Feminist Diplomacy; Gender-based Violence; Gender and Crisis; and Intersectional Policy. Each of these themes is presented with a dedicated essay that includes data and best-practice models and concludes with a series of recommendations to the G7 leaders. Four of these themes are further elucidated in a more accessible comic-strip format." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Although men and women are typically taxed under the same rules, their different social and economic characteristics (e.g. income levels or labour force participation) mean that the tax system can inadvertently contribute to gender inequalities in society. Understanding and improving the impact of taxes on gender equality is a key dimension that governments need to consider as part of tax design to support inclusive growth. This report provides the first cross-country overview of governments' approaches to tax policy and gender, including reforms undertaken to date and potential areas of explicit and implicit gender bias. Covering 43 countries, it also explores the extent to which governments take into account gender implications in policy development, gender considerations in tax administration and compliance, and the availability and use of gender-disaggregated data. Finally, it also discusses priorities for further work on tax policy and gender issues." (Author's abstract, © 2022 OECD) ((en))

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Duval-Hernandez, Robert, Lei Fang & L. Rachel Ngai (2021): Taxes, Subsidies, and Gender Gaps in Hours and Wages. (Working papers / Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta 2021,17), Atlanta, Ga., 48 S. DOI:10.29338/wp2021-17

Abstract

"Using micro data from 17 countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, this paper documents a negative cross-country correlation between gender ratios in market hours and wages. We find that market hours by women and the size of the service sector that produces close substitutes to home production are important for the gender differences in market hours across countries. We quantify the role played by taxes and subsidies to family care on the two gender ratios in a multisector model with home production. Higher taxes and lower subsidies reduce the marketization of home production and therefore reduce market hours. The effect is larger for women because of their comparative advantage in producing home services and the corresponding market substitutes. The larger fall in female market hours drives up the female wage relative to the male wage, resulting in higher gender wage ratios." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Korinek, Jane, Evdokia Moïsé & Jakob Tange (2021): Trade and gender: A Framework of analysis. (OECD trade policy working papers 246), Paris, 87 S. DOI:10.1787/6db59d80-en

Abstract

"Closing gender gaps makes good economic sense. Advancing the aim of women's economic empowerment will require policy action across a wide range of areas, including increasing their participation in international trade. Although trade policies are not de jure discriminatory, they impact women and men differently due to dissimilar initial conditions. Mapping the channels and interactions between trade and gender for women as workers, consumers, and business owners shows that: (i) trade impacts women workers differently to men in part because they are employed in different sectors — in OECD countries, more often in services; (ii) trade lowers prices for consumers, which particularly increases the purchasing power of more vulnerable groups, where women are disproportionately represented; and (iii) higher trade costs impede smaller businesses' access to international markets more than large firms, which impacts women who tend to own and lead smaller businesses. A framework is proposed for analysing the impacts of trade and trade policies on women that policy makers can use in order to ensure that trade and trade policies in their country support women's economic empowerment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Li, Qi, Chris Knoester & Richard J. Petts (2021): Cross-national Attitudes about Paid Parental Leave Offerings for Fathers. (SocArXiv papers), 40 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/dxy24

Abstract

"Using cross-national data from the 2012 International Social Survey Programme (N = 33,273), this study considers institutional, self-interest, and ideational factors in analyzing public opinions about the provision, length, and source of paid parental leave offerings for fathers. We find substantial support for generous leave offerings. Multilevel regression results reveal that being a woman, supporting dual-earning expectations, and realizing more family strains lead to support for more generous leave offerings. Endorsing separate spheres and intensive mothering attitudes reduces support for more generous leave offerings; although, gendered attitudes interact with one another in predicting leave preferences, too. Finally, country-level indicators of female empowerment and father-specific leave offerings are positively associated with preferences for more generous leave offerings. Overall, public opinions about fathers’ leave offerings across OECD countries largely support policies that provide opportunities for more involved fathering, but preferences continue to be gendered and linked to family strains and country-level contexts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Mourelatos, Evangelos (2021): Hiring Discrimination in Labor Markets. An Experimental Study of Mood Regulation. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 956), Essen, 49 S.

Abstract

"We explore whether there is a link between mood and hiring decisions. This research examines how positive mood affects the discrimination faced my homosexual job candidates compared to heterosexuals. Our experimental design allows us to track the complete hiring process and monitor employers' behavior within and without our treatment context, in both online and offline labor market settings. Constructing pairs of curriculum vitae, distinguished, in each case, only by the sexual orientation or the gender of the applicants, led to the observation that females and gay men faced a significantly lower chance of getting hired regardless the labor market context. We also find that female employers propose higher levels of discrimination only for the case of female applicants. Our positive mood manipulation led to a depletion of discrimination levels, with the effects being more robust in the online labor context. Thus, there is substantial experimental evidence to suggest that discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender does exist also in online labor markets. Contributions to the hiring discrimination, mood research, and gig-economy literature are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Queisser, Monika (2021): COVID-19 and OECD Labour Markets: What Impact on Gender Gaps? In: Intereconomics, Jg. 56, H. 5, S. 249-253. DOI:10.1007/s10272-021-0993-6

Abstract

"Across the board statements on who suffers most are not helpful and may actually be a disservice to the fight for greater gender equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Abstract

"Women continue to earn less than men, in spite of major societal changes over decades and many labour market, educational and public policy initiatives that have targeted the gender wage gap. To address this persistent challenge, many governments are now mandating promising new pay transparency tools like employer pay gap reporting, equal pay audits, and gender-neutral job classification systems. These policies hold considerable allure. Pay transparency offers a relatively simple and intuitive way to identify and address gender wage gaps when they occur in a workplace. These policies can function well in publicising wage gaps and incentivising employers to address the inequalities they find – but only with the right policy design and implementation. This report presents the first stocktaking of pay transparency tools across OECD countries and explores how such policies can help level the playing field for women and men at work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ferragina, Emanuele (2020): Family policy and women's employment outcomes in 45 high-income countries. A systematic qualitative review of 238 comparative and national studies. In: Social Policy and Administration, Jg. 54, H. 7, S. 1016-1066. DOI:10.1111/spol.12584

Abstract

"The article reviews the available quantitative evidence on the relationship between explicit family policy and women's employment outcomes in 45 high-income countries between 1980 and 2016. At the methodological level, we gathered 238 papers through a four-stage systematic qualitative review. We included articles published in English in international journals or by leading research institutes. Despite the accrued importance of the field, comparative works and national case studies do not sufficiently engage one another for methodological and disciplinary reasons. Our contribution is to integrate the findings from both streams of the literature in two ways. First, we chart systematically the debate describing its evolution over four decades, the disciplines involved (demography, economics, politics, social policy, sociology, and interdisciplinary work), and the geographical and policy breadth of the empirical contributions. Second, we provide a rich guide for scholars in the field by exploring how national case studies fit (or not) the broad trends captured in comparative research and discussing key and controversial debates in the field. In conclusion, we point out also important gaps in the literature and propose new avenues for future research. An exhaustive set of tables provides information on each comparative and national case study and on the databases and variables employed in the literature." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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McNally, Sandra (2020): Gender Differences in Tertiary Education. What Explains STEM Participation? (CEP discussion paper 1721), London, 33 S.

Abstract

"The share of women achieving tertiary education has increased rapidly over time and now exceeds that of men in most OECD countries. However, women are severely under-represented in maths-intensive science fields, which are generally referred to as STEM (science, technology, engineering, and maths). The under-representation of women in these subject areas has received a great deal of attention. This is because these fields are seen to be especially important for productivity and economic growth and are associated with occupations that have higher earnings. Subject of degree is an important part of the explanation for the gender wage gap. The aim of this paper is to review evidence on explanations for the STEM gap in tertiary education. This starts with statistics about background context and evidence on how well-prepared male and female students may be for studying STEM at a later stage. I then discuss what the literature has to say about the role of personal attributes: namely confidence, self-efficacy and competitiveness and the role of preferences and expectations. I go on to discuss features of the educational context thought to be important for influencing attributes and preferences (or mediating their effects): peers; teachers; role models; and curriculum. I then briefly discuss broader cultural influences. I use the literature reviewed to discuss policy implications." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Wong, Elizabeth, Judy Jou, Amy Raub & Jody Heymann (2020): Comparing the availability of paid parental leave for same-sex and different-sex couples in 34 OECD countries. In: Journal of social policy, Jg. 49, H. 3, S. 525-545. DOI:10.1017/S0047279419000643

Abstract

"The availability of paid family leave has been widely researched in the context of a two-parent household with one mother and one father, yet few studies have explored whether households with same-sex parents have access to equal benefits. Expanding on previous cross-country comparisons of parental leave policies, this study examines parental leave policies in 34 OECD countries to compare the total duration of paid parental leave available to same-sex and different-sex parent families within a country. We find that same-sex female and different-sex couples receive equal durations of leave in the majority of countries. However, same-sex male couples often receive shorter durations of paid parental leave compared to both different-sex and same-sex female couples. In addition to addressing the implications of laws and policies surrounding same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption on parental leave availability, we highlight specific aspects of paid leave policies that may explain the unequal durations of paid leave between same-sex and different-sex couples." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2020): Quality Early Childhood Education and Care for Children Under Age 3. Results from the Starting Strong Survey 2018. (TALIS), Paris, 120 S. DOI:10.1787/99f8bc95-en

Abstract

"The experience of children under age 3 with early childhood education and care (ECEC) is crucial for their learning, development and well-being and for parents’ return to work. Despite increasing recognition of the importance of ECEC for the youngest children, little is known about this sector. The OECD Starting Strong Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS Starting Strong) is the first international survey that focuses on the ECEC workforce. It asks staff and leaders about themselves and their settings, including the practices they use with children and their views on the sector. This thematic report focusses on ECEC for children under age 3, an option of the Survey in which four countries (Denmark, Germany, Israel and Norway) participated. The report answers many questions that are important for parents, actors in the field, and policy makers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brimblecombe, Simon & Shea McClanahan (2019): Improving gender outcomes in social security retirement systems. In: Social policy and administration, Jg. 53, H. 3, S. 327-342. DOI:10.1111/spol.12476

Abstract

"Assessing whether retirement systems meet their varying objectives requires analysing outcomes across different categories of beneficiaries with different working, financial, demographic, and family situations. Policymakers should therefore assess systems on the distribution of outcomes rather than average outcomes.
Much has been written about the gender inequalities inherent in labour markets and how these are reflected and reproduced in pension systems, and there is growing evidence that recent reforms have exacerbated these trends. Recent research has turned to the policy measures available to policymakers to forestall or reverse these trends, but this literature tends to overlook important administrative measures that have the potential to reduce inequalities in access that could improve pension outcomes for women within the current policy framework. This paper examines the main issues surrounding gender inequality in retirement outcomes; explores the implications of recent reform trends in light of the differential outcomes for women, including policy options to mitigate the negative impacts; and concludes with a review of key administrative measures, including streamlining affiliation procedures, improving information, and simplifying payment of contributions and receipt of benefits and better compliance of employers." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Crotti, Robert, Thierry Geiger, Vesselina Ratcheva & Saadia Zahidi (2019): The global gender gap report 2020. Insight report. (The global gender gap report), Cologny/Geneva, 370 S.

Abstract

"Gender parity is fundamental to whether and how economies and societies thrive. Ensuring the full development and appropriate deployment of half of the world’s total talent pool has a vast bearing on the growth, competitiveness and future-readiness of economies and businesses worldwide. The Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks 153 countries on their progress towards gender parity. In addition, this year’s edition studies gender gaps prospects in the professions of the future." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Oshio, Takashi (2019): Is a positive association between female employment and fertility still spurious in developed countries? In: Demographic Research, Jg. 41, S. 1277-1288. DOI:10.4054/DemRes.2019.41.45

Abstract

"Background: The cross-sectional association between female employment and fertility across developed countries turned from negative to positive during the mid-1980s. The conventional view is that the observed positive association is spurious owing to country-specific heterogeneity.
Objective: We revisit the validity of this view using recent data up to 2017 from 24 countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Methods: Based on the data downloaded from the OECD database, we estimate the time-series association between the female labor force participation rate (FLFP) and total fertility rate (TFR) by fixed-effects regression models, which can control for country-specific heterogeneity.
Results: The more recent the data set used, the more likely it is that the time-series correlation will be positive between FLFP and TFR, even after controlling for country-specific heterogeneity. We also observe that public spending on families, especially in the form of benefits in kind, starts increasing once FLFP becomes sufficiently high.
Conclusions: A positive correlation between female employment and fertility in developed countries is no longer attributable to country-specific heterogeneity. The results are supportive of the view that higher female employment can make socioinstitutional contexts more favorable for childbearing, leading to a positive association between FLFP and TFR.
Contribution: This study underscored the need for further investigation of the association between female employment and fertility, which is likely to have changed in recent decades." (Author's abstract, © Max-Planck-Institut für demographische Forschung) ((en))

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Day, Creina (2018): Inverse J effect of economic growth on fertility. A model of gender wages and maternal time substitution. In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 39, H. 4, S. 577-587. DOI:10.1007/s10834-018-9578-3

Abstract

"This paper presented a model where economic growth, via growth in female wages relative to male wages, encouraged households to raise paid female labor supply and have more children by substituting child care for maternal time. A threshold logarithm per capita output, above which fertility decline reverses, was predicted to depend on subsidized child care, maternity pay, and the value placed on children and maternal time spent rearing children. The predictions explained recent evidence and identified cross country differences in gender wages, family policy and willingness to substitute maternal time in childrearing as important factors in an inverse J-shaped effect of economic growth on fertility. The analysis was robust to the introduction of education and cost sharing among children in child rearing. Economies of scale in child rearing reduced the threshold logarithm of per capita output. Demand for child quality continued to rise with wages despite fertility decline reversal." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Gupta, Nabanita Datta (2018): Maternity leave versus early childcare - what are the long-term consequences for children? Despite increasingly generous parental leave schemes their advantages over subsidized childcare remain unclear. (IZA world of labor 438), Bonn, 11 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.438

Abstract

"Die Subvention formaler Kinderbetreuung leistet einen Beitrag zur Sicherung des Arbeitsangebots in alternden Gesellschaften und sorgt dafür, dass sich wichtige Fähigkeiten in den prägenden frühen Lebensjahren eines Kindes entwickeln. Entsprechende Investitionen führen zu langfristigen Bildungs- und Beschäftigungserträgen, die sich am deutlichsten bei Kindern aus schwächeren und mittleren sozioökonomischen Verhältnissen zeigen. Allerdings muss einer beeinträchtigten Entwicklung nicht-kognitiver Fähigkeiten durch zu lange externe Betreuung entgegengewirkt werden. Eine hohe Betreuungsqualität setzt breite gesellschaftliche Unterstützung voraus." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Kushi, Sidita & Ian P. McManus (2018): Gendered costs of austerity: the effects of the great recession and government policies on employment across the OECD. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 157, H. 4, S. 557-587. DOI:10.1111/ilr.12059

Abstract

"The global financial crisis prompted dramatic increases in unemployment and market instability in nearly every state. While the negative effects on national economies have been widespread, distributional outcomes have varied among different labor market groups, particularly between men and women. This article analyzes the gendered impact of the Great Recession on labor markets across the OECD, using random effects modeling of 28 countries across 14 years. We argue that although the start of the crisis afflicted male workers the most, the turn from stimulus toward fiscal austerity policies - including social spending and public employment cuts - exposed women to greater instability." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Zahidi, Saadia, Thierry Geiger & Robert Crotti (2018): The global gender gap report 2018. Insight report. (The global gender gap report), Cologny/Geneva, VIII, 355 S.

Abstract

"Gender parity is fundamental to whether and how economies and societies thrive. Ensuring the full development and appropriate deployment of half of the world's total talent pool has a vast bearing on the growth, competitiveness and future-readiness of economies and businesses worldwide. The Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks 149 countries on their progress towards gender parity across four thematic dimensions: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment. In addition, this year's edition studies skills gender gaps related to Artificial Intelligence (AI)." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, commonly known as the Nordic countries, have been leaders in the development of modern family and gender policy, and the explicit promotion of gender equality at home, at work, and in public life. Today, on many measures, they boast some of the most gender-equal labour markets in the OECD.
This report shows that improvements in gender equality have contributed considerably to economic growth in the Nordic countries. Increases in female employment alone are estimated to account for anywhere between roughly 0.05 and 0.40 percentage points to average annual GDP per capita growth - equivalent to 3 to 20% of total GDP per capita growth over the past 50 years or so, depending on the country.
The Nordic countries are closer than most to achieving gender equality in the labour market. But the last mile may well prove to be the longest one. To make further progress, a continued assessment of the effectiveness of existing public policies and workplace practices is needed. Only with resolve and a continued focus can Nordic countries ensure that men and women contribute to their economies and societies in gender equal measure." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2018): Taxing wages 2016-2017. Special feature: Differences in the disposable incomes of households with and without children. (Taxing wages / OECD 2016-2017), Paris, 592 S. DOI:10.1787/tax_wages-2018-en

Abstract

"This annual flagship publication provides details of taxes paid on wages in OECD countries. It covers personal income taxes and social security contributions paid by employees, social security contributions and payroll taxes paid by employers, and cash benefits received by in-work families. It illustrates how these taxes and benefits are calculated in each member country and examines how they impact household incomes. The results also enable quantitative cross-country comparisons of labour cost levels and the overall tax and benefit position of single persons and families on different levels of earnings. The publication shows average and marginal effective tax rates on labour costs for eight different household types, which vary by income level and household composition (single persons, single parents, one or two earner couples with or without children). The average tax rates measure the part of gross wage earnings or labour costs taken in tax and social security contributions, both before and after cash benefits, and the marginal tax rates the part of a small increase of gross earnings or labour costs that is paid in these levies.
Taxing Wages 2018 includes a special feature entitled: 'Differences in the Disposable Incomes of Households with and without Children'." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"While digital technologies offer leapfrog opportunities and help empower women, gender-based digital exclusion remains widespread and has many causes. The report Bridging the Digital Divide: Include, Upskill, Innovate is an effort by the OECD, working with the G20, that aims to provide policy directions for consideration by all governments. It analyses a range of drivers at the root of the digital gender divide in order to draw attention to critical areas for policy action." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brewer, Mike & Sahra Cattan (2017): Universal pre-school and labor supply of mothers. In: ifo DICE report, Jg. 15, H. 2, S. 8-12.

Abstract

Der Ausbau der Vorschulerziehung wurde in den letzten 30 Jahren in vielen Ländern vorangetrieben. Hiermit sollte die kindliche Entwicklung gefördert, soziale Unterschiede ausgeglichen und die Beschäftigung von Müttern gesteigert werden. Der Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über die empirische Literatur zum Zusammenhang von Vorschulerziehung und der Erwerbsbeteiligung von Müttern in OECD-Staaten. Es zeigt sich, dass das Angebot einer subventionierten Vorschulbildung in den untersuchten Ländern sehr unterschiedliche Auswirkungen auf die Erwerbsbeteiligung hat. So kam es in einigen Ländern, wie Spanien, Argentinien und Kanada zur erheblichen Steigerungen der Müttererwerbstätigkeit, während es in den USA und einigen nordischen Ländern nahezu keinen Einfluss hatte. (IAB)

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Elveren, Adem Y., Christa Marr & Yvonne Renard (2017): Feminization of labour and profit rates. Evidence from OECD countries. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 24, H. 7, S. 481-484. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2016.1203057

Abstract

"The article examines the effect of the feminization of labour on profit rates and capacity utilization by employing an indirect and two-stage least squares models for 21 OECD countries during the 1970 - 2008 period. Findings show that higher women's labour force participation rates and gender wage gap lead to higher profit rates." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kauhanen, Antti (2017): Gender differences in corporate hierarchies. How and why do the careers of men and women differ? What policies could reduce the differences? (IZA world of labor 358), Bonn, 11 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.358

Abstract

"The gender wage gap is largely due to men and women holding different kinds of jobs. This job segregation is partly driven by gender differences in careers in corporate hierarchies. Research has shown that the careers of men and women begin to diverge immediately upon entry into the labor market and that subsequent career progress exacerbates the divergence. This divergence of career progress explains a large part of the gender wage gap. Understanding how and why the careers of men and women differ is necessary to design effective policies that can reduce the gender differences in hierarchies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Khan, Haroon Ur Rashid, Anwar Khan, Khalid Zaman, Agha Amad Nabi, Sanil S. Hishan & Talat Islam (2017): Gender discrimination in education, health, and labour market. A voice for equality. In: Quality & quantity, Jg. 51, H. 5, S. 2245-2266. DOI:10.1007/s11135-016-0384-4

Abstract

"The objective of the study is to examine the impact of gender discrimination in education, health, and labour market on economic growth in a panel of 20 high-income OECD countries for the period of 1980 - 2015. In addition, the study proposed an index of pro-equality growth, which is flared with education, health, and labour market initiatives to promote economic growth. The results show that gender parity index for educational attainment significantly promotes economic growth while health and labour market required substantial policy reforms to reduce health and labour market inequalities to sustain long-term economic growth. The results classified three countries as highly equitable growth, one country for equitable growth, two countries are moderate growth, four countries are less equitable growth while remaining 10 countries fall in the category of inequitable growth, where greater inequality promotes economic growth on the cost of education, health, and labour market inequalities." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Kleven, Henrik & Camille Landais (2017): Gender inequality and economic development. Fertility, education and norms. In: Economica, Jg. 84, H. 334, S. 180-209. DOI:10.1111/ecca.12230

Abstract

"We document the evolution of gender inequality in labour market outcomes -- earnings, labour supply and wage rates -- over the path of economic development, and present evidence on the potential reasons for this evolution. To this end, we have created a micro database that compiles 248 surveys from 53 countries between 1967 and 2014, covering a wide range of per capita income levels. There is large convergence in the earnings of men and women over the path of development, driven by female labour force participation and wage rates. We argue that the single most important factor behind this convergence is demographic transition: the effects of children on gender gaps ('child penalties') are large at both low and high levels of development, but fertility declines drastically over the growth process and thus reduces the aggregate implications of children. We also document gender convergence in educational attainment and consider its effects on earnings inequality, arguing that these are significant but less dramatic than the effects of fertility. Finally, we document striking changes in the values or norms surrounding the role of women with children, implying that such changes could serve as a reinforcing mechanism for gender convergence." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Kunze, Astrid (2017): The gender wage gap in developed countries. (IZA discussion paper 10826), Bonn, 40 S.

Abstract

"Despite the increased attachment of women to the labour force in nearly all developed countries, a stubborn gender pay gap remains. This chapter provides a review of the economics literature on the gender wage gap, with an emphasis on developed countries. We begin with an overview of the trends in the gender differences in wages and employment rates. We then review methods used to decompose the gender wage gap and the results from such decompositions. We discuss how trends and differences in the gender wage gap across countries can be understood in light of non-random selection and human capital differences. We then review the evidence on demand-side factors used to explain the existing gender wage gap and then discuss occupational segregation. The chapter concludes with suggestions for further research." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense, Ariana Need & Henk Van der Kolk (2017): Is there such a thing as too long childcare leave? In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 37, H. 1/2, S. 2-15. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-07-2015-0074

Abstract

"Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to revisit the question whether women's employment is negatively affected in countries with very long periods of childcare leave.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors analyzed data on 192,484 individual women, 305 country-years, and 18-countries, combined with country-level data on childcare, unemployment and service sector size.
Findings
The authors found that in countries with short periods of childcare leave the motherhood-employment gap is smaller than in countries with no childcare leave, while in countries with long periods of childcare leave the motherhood-employment gap is bigger than with short periods of leave.
Originality/value
The authors argued that to correctly answer the long-leave question - the relationship between duration of leave and employment of women should be explicitly hypothesized as being curvilinear; and childcare leave should be expected to affect only mothers, not women without children; testing the long-leave hypothesis requires the use of country-comparative data in which countries are observed repeatedly over time; and is best tested against person-level data." (Author's abstract, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Olivetti, Claudia & Barbara Petrongolo (2017): The economic consequences of family policies. Lessons from a century of legislation in high-income countries. In: The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Jg. 31, H. 1, S. 205-230. DOI:10.1257/jep.31.1.205

Abstract

"By the early 21st century, most high-income countries have put into effect a host of generous and virtually gender-neutral parental leave policies and family benefits, with the multiple goals of gender equity, higher fertility, and child development. What have been the effects? Proponents typically emphasize the contribution of family policies to the goals of gender equity and child development, enabling women to combine careers and motherhood, and altering social norms regarding gender roles. Opponents often warn that family policies may become a long-term hindrance to women's careers because of the loss of work experience and the higher costs to employers that hire women of childbearing age. We draw lessons from existing work and our own analysis on the effects of parental leave and other interventions aimed at aiding families. We present country- and micro-level evidence on the effects of family policy on gender outcomes, focusing on female employment, gender gaps in earnings, and fertility. Most estimates range from negligible to a small positive impact. But the verdict is far more positive for the beneficial impact of spending on early education and childcare." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Pocock, Barbara & Sara Charlesworth (2017): Multilevel work-family interventions. Creating good-quality employment over the life course. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 44, H. 1, S. 23-46. DOI:10.1177/0730888415619218

Abstract

"Poor-quality jobs have significant costs for individual workers, their families, and the wider community. Drawing mainly on the Australian case, the authors' focus is on the structural challenges to work - life reconciliation and the multiple-level interventions necessary to create quality employment that supports workers to reconcile work and family over the life course. The authors argue that interventions are necessary in three domains: at the macrosocial and economic level, in the regulatory domain, and in the workplace domain. The nature and success of these interventions is also critical to gender equality and to responding to the changing gender and care composition of the workforce across OECD countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Schwab, Klaus, Richard Samans, Saadia Zahidi, Till Alexander Leopold, Vesselina Ratcheva, Ricardo Hausmann & Laura D¿Andrea Tyson (2017): The global gender gap report 2017. Insight report. (The global gender gap report), Cologny/Geneva, 349 S.

Abstract

"Gender parity is fundamental to whether and how economies and societies thrive. Ensuring the full development and appropriate deployment of half of the world's total talent pool has a vast bearing on the growth, competitiveness and future-readiness of economies and businesses worldwide. The Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks 144 countries on their progress towards gender parity across four thematic dimensions: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment. In addition, this year's edition also analyses the dynamics of gender gaps across industry talent pools and occupations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2017): World employment and social outlook. Trends for women 2017. (World employment and social outlook. Trends), Genf, 63 S.

Abstract

"This report examines the global and regional labour market trends and gaps, including in labour force participation rates, unemployment rates, employment status as well as sectoral and occupational segregation. It also presents a global in-depth analysis of the key drivers of female labour force participation by investigating the personal preferences of women and the societal gender norms and socio-economic constraints that women face.
A key finding of this report is that closing these labour market gaps would yield significant economic benefits in terms of GDP growth while at the same time improving individual welfare in multiple dimensions. However, the report finds that there are significant socio-economic and gender norm constraints influencing a woman's decision to participate. Accordingly, the report introduces a comprehensive framework to address the drivers of these gender gaps and outlines a series of policy recommendations to improve the labour market outcomes of women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gielen, Anne C. & Klaus F. Zimmermann (Hrsg.); Blau, Francine D. (2016): Gender, inequality, and wages. (IZA Prize in labor economics), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 545 S.

Abstract

"In all Western societies women earn lower wages on average than men.
The gender wage gap has existed for many years, although there have been some important changes over time. This volume of collected papers contains extensive research on progress made by women in the labor market, and the characteristics and causes of remaining gender inequalities. It also covers other dimensions of gender inequality, such as family formation, wellbeing, and other dimensions of inequality, including by race and immigrant status, and their interplay with gender. The author was awarded the 2010 IZA Prize in Labor Economics for this research.
The book probes and quantifies the explanations for the gender wage gap, including differential choices made in the labor market by men and women, as well as labor market discrimination and employment segregation. It also delineates how the gender wage gap has decreased over time in the United States and suggests explanations for this narrowing of the gap, and the more recent slowdown in wage convergence. The volume also investigates international differences in the gender wage gap, and wage inequality and explains the link between the two. Moving on to consider a variety of indicators of gender inequality, it paints a picture of significant gains in women's relative status in the United States across a number of dimensions. It analyses the trends in female labor supply and what they indicate about changing gender roles in the United States, and considers a successful intervention designed to increase the relative success of academic women. Furthermore the book focuses on inequality by race and immigrant status, examining not only race differences in wages and the even larger race differences in wealth, but also immigrant source countries on immigrant women's labor market assimilation. In sum the book underscores the high relevance of research on gender inequalities in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Budig, Michelle J., Joya Misra & Irene Boeckmann (2016): Work - family policy trade-offs for mothers? Unpacking the cross-national variation in motherhood earnings penalties. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 43, H. 2, S. 119-177. DOI:10.1177/0730888415615385

Abstract

"Recent scholarship suggests welfare state interventions, as measured by policy indices, create gendered trade-offs wherein reduced work - family conflict corresponds to greater gender wage inequality. The authors reconsider these trade-offs by unpacking these indices and examining specific policy relationships with motherhood-based wage inequality to consider how different policies have different effects. Using original policy data and Luxembourg Income Study microdata, multilevel models across 22 countries examine the relationships among country-level family policies, tax policies, and the motherhood wage penalty. The authors find policies that maintain maternal labor market attachment through moderate-length leaves, publicly funded childcare, lower marginal tax rates on second earners, and paternity leave are correlated with smaller motherhood wage penalties." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cuberes, David & Marc Teignier (2016): Aggregate effects of gender gaps in the labor market. A quantitative estimate. In: Journal of Human Capital, Jg. 10, H. 1, S. 1-32.

Abstract

"This paper examines the quantitative effects of gender gaps in entrepreneurship and workforce participation. We simulate an occupational choice model with heterogeneous agents in entrepreneurial ability. Gender gaps in entrepreneurship affect negatively both income and aggregate productivity, since they reduce the entrepreneurs' average talent. Specifically, the expected income loss from excluding 5 percent of women is 2.5 percent, while the loss is 10 percent if they are all employers. We find that gender gaps cause an average income loss of 15 percent in the OECD, 40 percent of which is due to entrepreneurship gaps. Extending the model to developing countries, we obtain substantially higher losses, with significant variation across regions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kanninen, Ohto & Aleksi Karhula (2016): Changes in income at macro level predict sex ratio at birth in OECD countries. In: PLoS one, Jg. 11, H. 7, S. 1-8. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0158943

Abstract

"The human sex ratio at birth (SRB) is approximately 107 boys for every 100 girls. SRB was rising until the World War II and has been declining slightly after the 1950s in several industrial countries. Recent studies have shown that SRB varies according to exposure to disasters and socioeconomic conditions. However, it remains unknown whether changes in SRB can be explained by observable macro-level socioeconomic variables across multiple years and countries. Here we show that changes in disposable income at the macro level positively predict SRB in OECD countries. A one standard deviation increase in the change of disposable income is associated with an increase of 1.03 male births per 1000 female births. The relationship is possibly nonlinear and driven by extreme changes. The association varies from country to country being particular strong in Estonia. This is the first evidence to show that economic and social conditions are connected to SRB across countries at the macro level. This calls for further research on the effects of societal conditions on general characteristics at birth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kumra, Savita, Ruth Simpson & Ronald J. Burke (Hrsg.) (2016): The Oxford handbook of gender in organizations. (Oxford Handbooks in Business and Management), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 584 S. DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199658213.001.0001

Abstract

Part I. Theorizing Gender and Organizations
1: Marta Calas, Linda Smircich, Evangelina Holvino: Theorizing Gender-and-Organization: Changing Times, Changing Theories
2: Albert Mills, Jean Helms-Mills, Marianne Paludi: Disturbing Thoughts and Gendered Practices: A Discursive View of Feminist Organizational Analysis
3: Silvia Gherardi: Organizations as Symbolic Gendered Order
4: Heather Höpfl: Was will der Mann?
5: Patricia Lewis: Feminism, Post-Feminism and Emerging Femininities in Entrepreneurship
6: Karen Lee Ashcraft, Kate Lockwood Harris: Meaning that Matters: An Organization Communication perspective on Gender, Discourse, and Materiality.
Part II. Gender in Leadership and Management
7: Alice Eagly, Leire Gartzia, Linda L. Carli: Female Advantage Revisited
8: Isabel Metz, Carol Kulik: The Rocky Climb: Women's Advancement in Management
9: Yvonne du Billing, Mats Alvesson: Leadership: A Matter of Gender?
10: Sharon Mavin, Jannine Williams, Gina Grandy: Negative Intra-gender Relations between Women: Friendship, Competition and Female Misogyny
11: Gary Powell: Sex, Gender & Leadership: What do Four Decades of Research Tell Us?
12: Savita Kumra: Gendered Constructions of Merit and Impression Management within Professional Services Firms
Part III. Gender and Careers
13: Debra Major, Val Streets: Gender & Careers: Obstacles and Opportunities
14: Susanne Bruckmuller, Michelle Ryan, Floor Rink, Alex Haslam: The Glass Cliff: Examining Why Women Occupy Leadership in Precarious Circumstances
15: Yvonne Benschop & Marieke van den Brink: Power and Resistance in Gender Equality Strategies: Comparing Quotas and Small Wins
16: Sandra Fielden, Carianne Hunt: Sexual Harassment in the Workplace
17: Ron Burke: Organizational Culture, Work Investments, and the Careers of Men: Disadvantages to Women?
18: Barbara Bagilhole: Challenging Gender Boundaries: Pressures and Constraints on Women in Non-Traditional Occupations
Part IV. Masculinities in Organizations
19: Jeff Hearn: Contextualizing Men, Masculinities, Leadership and Management: Embodied/Virtual, Theory/Practice
20: Stephen Whitehead: Masculinities in Management: Hidden, Invisible & Persistent
21: Nick Rumens: Masculinity and Sexuality at Work: Incorporating Gay and Bisexual Men's Perspectives
22: Ruth Simpson: Doing Gender Differently: Men in Caring Occupations
23: David Knights, Marie Tullberg: Masculinity in the Financial Sector
24: Janne Tienari, Alexei Koveshnikov: Masculinity in Multinationals

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Lackner, Mario (2016): Gender differences in competitiveness. To what extent can different attitudes towards competition for men and women explain the gender gap in labor markets? (IZA world of labor 236), 10 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.236

Abstract

"Weltweit verdienen Frauen weniger als Männer und sind in Führungspositionen unterrepräsentiert. Häufig wird Diskriminierung als naheliegende Erklärung herangezogen. Doch empirische Studien zeigen auch, dass die Karrierenachteile zumindest teilweise auf geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede im Wettbewerbsverhalten zurückzuführen sind. Für die Politik besteht die Herausforderung darin, diese Unterschiede in sinnvollem Maße abzubauen, um die Gleichberechtigung auf dem Arbeitsmarkt zu fördern. Eine mögliche Option sind Bildungsreformen zur Stärkung der weiblichen Wettbewerbsbereitschaft. Beispielsweise kann getrennter Unterricht in einigen Fächern Sinn machen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Laux, Thomas (2016): Die Institutionalisierung von Lohngleichheitsrechten. Eine vergleichende Analyse von OECD Staaten. In: Zeitschrift für Soziologie, Jg. 45, H. 6, S. 393-409. DOI:10.1515/zfsoz-2015-1023

Abstract

"Lohngleichheitsrechte zielen auf die Verringerung geschlechtsspezifischer Lohnungleichheit ab. Sie liefern Standards, um Lohnungleichheit wahrzunehmen, und Mittel, um dagegen vorzugehen. Die Studie untersucht die Mechanismen der Institutionalisierung von Lohngleichheitsrechten und geht der Frage nach, warum und wie starke Lohngleichheitsrechte in OECD Staaten institutionalisiert wurden. Dazu werden Annahmen aus der Zivilgesellschafts- und Bewegungsforschung sowie des Weltkulturansatzes untersucht, denn Lohngleichheitsrechte wurden von Frauenbewegungen eingefordert und sind Gegenstand internationaler Abkommen. Die vergleichende Analyse erfolgt mit einer Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) und ermittelt zwei äquifinale Erklärungen: Hinreichend sind starke Frauenbewegungen in Kombination mit schwachen Gewerkschaften oder starke Gewerkschaften in Kombination mit einer mehrheitlichen Zustimmung zur Gleichstellung von Frauen in der Bevölkerung. Beide Erklärungen werden rekonstruiert und die relevanten Mechanismen, vor allem solche der Mobilisierung, herausgearbeitet." (Autorenreferat, © De Gruyter)

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Pena-Boquete, Yolanda (2016): Further developments in the dynamics of female labour force participation. In: Empirical economics, Jg. 50, H. 2, S. 463-501. DOI:10.1007/s00181-015-0931-1

Abstract

"Papers attempting to explain female labour force participation either do not include women-specific variables or lack a proper dynamic specification. In this paper, we estimate a dynamic equation for female labour force participation in OECD countries from 1980 to 2007, taking into account several sets of variables. Moreover, we use our model to predict the results for 2007 - 2011, and we find that our model adjusts quite well to the actual data even with regard to the out-sample observations during the ongoing recession. In order to gain further insight concerning the interpretation and robustness of the equation, it is then compared to a similar equation for males. Our results show that real wage is one of the most relevant variables for female participation. Thus our specification could also be useful to endogenise labour force participation for a macro-labour market framework such as that of Layard et al. (1991, rev. 2005). However, women's preferences, the overall level of education, and other structural factors are also important." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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(2016): Global wage report 2016/17. Wage inequality in the workplace. (Global wage report 05), Genf, 114 S.

Abstract

"The 2016/17 edition examines inequality at the workplace level, providing empirical evidence on the extent to which wage inequality is the result of wage inequality between enterprises as well as within enterprises. The report also includes a review of key policy issues regarding wages." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2016): The global gender gap report 2016. Insight report. (The global gender gap report), Cologny/Geneva, 382 S.

Abstract

"The world is facing an acute misuse of talent by not acting faster to tackle gender inequality, which could put economic growth at risk and deprive economies of the opportunity to develop, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap Report 2016, which is published today.
The report is an annual benchmarking exercise that measures progress towards parity between men and women in four areas: Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, Economic Opportunity and Political Empowerment. In this latest edition, the report finds that progress towards parity in the key economic pillar has slowed dramatically with the gap - which stands at 59% - now larger than at any point since 2008.
Behind this decline are a number of factors. One is salary, with women around the world on average earning just over half of what men earn despite, on average, working longer hours taking paid and unpaid work into account. Another persistent challenge is stagnant labour-force participation, with the global average for women standing at 54%, compared with 81% for men. The number of women in senior positions also remains stubbornly low, with only four countries in the world having equal numbers of male and female legislators, senior officials and managers, despite the fact that 95 countries now have as many - if not more - women educated at university level." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Adema, Willem, Chris Clarke & Valérie Frey (2015): Paid parental leave. Lessons from OECD countries and selected U.S. States. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 172), Paris, 130 S. DOI:10.1787/5jrqgvqqb4vb-en

Abstract

"The United States is at a crossroads in its policies towards the family and gender equality. Currently America provides basic support for children, fathers, and mothers in the form of unpaid parental leave, child-related tax breaks, and limited public childcare. Alternatively, the United States' OECD peers empower families through paid parental leave and comprehensive investments in infants and children. The potential gains from strengthening these policies are enormous. Paid parental leave and subsidised childcare help get and keep more women in the workforce, contribute to economic growth, offer cognitive and health benefits to children, and extend choice for parents in finding their preferred work-life strategy. Indeed, the United States has been falling behind the rest of the OECD in many social and economic indicators by not adequately investing in children, fathers and mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brehm, Uta & Henriette Engelhardt (2015): On the age-specific correlation between fertility and female employment. Heterogeneity over space and time in OECD countries. In: Demographic Research, Jg. 32, S. 691-722. DOI:10.4054/DemRes.2015.32.23

Abstract

"Background: Though there has been profound research on the curious change in correlation between total fertility rate (TFR) and female labor force participation (FLP) in the mid-1980s, aspects of the compositional character of age-specific effects and the nature of countries' heterogeneity have been neglected.
Objective: The present paper aims to contribute to filling this gap by analyzing annual total fertility rates and their equivalents for four age groups between 20 and 39 years as well as the respective lagged FLP from 17 OECD countries between 1985 and 2010.
Methods: Random Intercept and Random Coefficient Models are applied, allowing us to assess both effects and country heterogeneity in slopes and intercepts.
Results: The analyses reveal that the development of the correlation between FLP and TFR after 1985 is comprised of very different relations between age-specific fertility and labor participation. The youngest group's situation is determined by a decrease in both fertility and FLP, while countries' effects differ increasingly. The oldest women's fertility decisions seem to be detached from labor market influences, though country variation is high. Women in their late 20s and early 30s, in contrast, appear to be most affected by the incompatibility of childbearing and gainful employment. Though these effects seem to have overcome their low points during the mid-1990s, only women in their early 30s show country-convergence.
Conclusions: The results highlight the fact that total and age-specific fertility behavior, FLP-effects and country variances are distinct concepts that add considerably to the broad understanding of the correlation between fertility and FLP." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chakraborty, Indraneel, Hans A. Holter & Serhiy Stepanchuk (2015): Marriage stability, taxation and aggregate labor supply in the U.S. vs. Europe. In: Journal of monetary economics, Jg. 72, H. May, S. 1-20. DOI:10.1016/j.jmoneco.2015.01.001

Abstract

"Americans work more than Europeans. Using micro-data from the United States and 17 European countries, we document that women are typically the largest contributors to the cross-country differences in work hours. We also show that there is a negative relation between taxes and annual hours worked, driven by men, and a positive relation between divorce rates and annual hours worked, driven by women. In a calibrated life-cycle model with heterogeneous agents, marriage and divorce, we find that the divorce and tax mechanisms together can explain 45% of the variation in labor supply between the United States and the European countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fischer, Justina A. V. & Francesco Pastore (2015): Tempora mutantur, nos et mutamur in illis. Religion and female employment over time. (IZA discussion paper 9244), Bonn, 9 S.

Abstract

"This study analyses whether the role of religion for employment of married women in Europe has changed over time and along women's life cycles. Using information on 44'000 married European women from the World Values Survey 1981-2013, we find that in OECD-Europe there is little difference among women of any age since 1997. For non-OECD-Europe, we find differences by religion among young women, but not among those older than 40 years, which we attribute to an upbringing under communist regimes. Only Muslim women show a lower employment probability that persists across time, regions, and life cycles." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Haitz, Natascha (2015): Old-age poverty in OECD countries and the issue of gender pension gaps. In: CESifo DICE report, Jg. 13, H. 2, S. 73-75.

Abstract

"To conclude, poverty in old-age is widespread in our sample of OECD countries, especially when looking at female poverty. The main causes of gender income inequality in retirement are career interruptions due to childbirth and the lower earnings of women. The higher life expectancy of women also leads to poverty if they are left to live alone in their old-age. Even if younger women earn more pension entitlements in the future, inequality is still an important issue. However, the different country specific poverty thresholds should be kept in mind when drawing conclusions from the data presented. Moreover, institutions are very important in this context, since a good institutional framework can compensate for the drawbacks faced by old people, and especially women. Pension systems thus have to account for these drawbacks by integrating adequate survivor benefits and features like minimum pension payments (OECD 2012). Another frequently discussed policy is the gender equality of pensionable ages in order to allow women a longer period of employment. Moreover, child care and family support policies are of increasing importance to enable women to reconcile family and work (OECD 2012)." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Arm und Reich driften im OECD-Raum immer weiter auseinander. In der Mehrzahl der Länder kommt wirtschaftliches Wachstum eher höheren Einkommensgruppen zugute - ärmere Haushalte bleiben zurück. Der Bericht beleuchtet, in welchen Bereichen Ungleichheit entsteht und wo politische Schritte erforderlich sind. Er schaut unter anderem auf die finanziellen Auswirkungen irregulärer Jobs, auf die Einkommensschere zwischen Männern und Frauen sowie auf die Entwicklung der Ungleichheit seit der Krise" (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Abstract

"Statistics and indicators that reflect the realities of the lives of women and men are needed to describe women's and men's role in the society, economy and family, to formulate and monitor policies and plans, monitor changes, and inform the public. In 2010, the Conference of European Statisticians (CES) established the Task Force on Indicators of Gender Equality, to improve the monitoring of gender equality in the UNECE region by consolidating and systematizing gender-relevant statistical indicators.
This publication contains the result of the work of that Task Force, which was endorsed by CES in October 2014. It presents a set of 115 gender equality indicators recommended for use in countries participating in the work of CES. The indicators are grouped in eight thematic domains inspired by the Beijing Platform for Action and categorized into 42 headline indicators and 73 supporting indicators. The selection is based on the consideration of policy needs, main existing international indicator frameworks, relevance to the measurement of gender equality and international availability." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"The third annual update of the PwC Women in Work (WIW) Index shows that the UK rose four places to 14th position in the OECD in 2013.
The improvement in the UK's performance is largely due to the strengthening economic recovery, which has driven improvements in female labour force participation and the reduction in female unemployment.
The Nordic countries continue to dominate the Women in Work Index. Norway remains in pole position (a position it has retained for all the years we have analysed: 2000, 2007, 2011, 2012 and 2013), followed by Denmark, Sweden, New Zealand and Finland (who have all retained their 2012 positions).
The United States and Hungary achieved notable improvements to their position on the Index, due to a narrowing of the wage gap, reduction in female unemployment and an increase in the proportion of women in full-time employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Borck, Rainald (2014): Adieu Rabenmutter: culture, fertility, female labour supply, the gender wage gap and childcare. In: Journal of population economics, Jg. 27, H. 3, S. 739-765. DOI:10.1007/s00148-013-0499-z

Abstract

"This paper studies the effect of cultural attitudes on childcare provision, fertility, female labour supply and the gender wage gap. Cross-country data show that fertility, female labour force participation and childcare provision are positively correlated with each other, while the gender wage gap seems to be negatively correlated with these variables. The paper presents a model with endogenous fertility, female labour supply and childcare choices driven by cultural attitudes which fit these facts. There may exist multiple equilibria: one with zero childcare provision, low fertility and female labour supply and high wage gap and one with high childcare provision, high fertility and female labour supply and low wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hill, E. Jeffrey, Jenet J. Erickson, Kaylene J. Fellows, Giuseppe Martinengo & Sarah M. Allen (2014): Work and family over the life course. Do older workers differ? In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 35, H. 1, S. 1-13. DOI:10.1007/s10834-012-9346-8

Abstract

"This study explored how older workers (age 55+) differed from middle-aged (ages 35 - 54) and young workers (<35 years) in their experience of the work - family interface. Data came from a subset of a survey conducted by a multi-national corporation in 79 countries (N = 41,813, n = 2,700). Older workers reported significantly less work-to-family and family-to-work conflict and greater work - family fit, life success, and work success than middle-aged and young workers. They reported significantly greater job flexibility and job satisfaction but were significantly less likely to be aware of and use work - family programs than young workers. Older men reported significantly less awareness and use of work-life programs and less family-to-work conflict than older women. Implications of this research are presented." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Quintini, Glenda (2014): Skills at work. How skills and their use matter in the labour market. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 158), Paris, 62 S. DOI:10.1787/5jz44fdfjm7j-en

Abstract

"Human capital is the key for economic growth. Not only is it linked to aggregate economic performance but also to each individual's labour market outcomes. However, a skilled population is not enough to achieve high and inclusive growth, as skills need to be put into productive use at work. Thanks to the availability of measures of both the proficiency and the use of numerous types of skills, the Survey of Adult Skills offers a unique opportunity to advance knowledge in this area and this paper presents and discusses evidence on both these dimensions with a particular focus on their implications for labour market policy. This paper explores the role played in the labour market by skill proficiency in the areas of literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments. It also shows how skills use, not only proficiency, affects a number of key labour market phenomena, such as the gender wage gap. Finally, the paper combines information on skill proficiency, educational attainment, skill use and qualification requirements to construct indicators of qualification and skills mismatch and to explore their causes and consequences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Raz-Yurovich, Liat (2014): A transaction cost approach to outsourcing by households. In: Population and Development Review, Jg. 40, H. 2, S. 293-309. DOI:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2014.00674.x

Abstract

"Below-replacement fertility and late marriage reflect, in part, the incompatibility of women's family and paid work roles. The outsourcing of childcare and housework to market and state service providers offers a strategy for reconciling work - family conflicts. By referring to the household as an organizational unit, I use the transaction cost approach (TCA) of organizational economics to discuss the factors that facilitate or impede outsourcing by households. In my analysis the frequency, specificity, and uncertainty level of the transaction, as well as normative and social beliefs, can facilitate or impede the household's decision to outsource. Monetary considerations, preferences, and government policies might moderate the effect of the transaction cost on this decision. The analysis further demonstrates that gender is an important factor, because transaction costs are often not distributed equally within households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Elborgh-Woytek, Katrin, Monique Newiak, Kalpana Kochhar, Stefania Fabrizio, Kangni Kpodar, Philippe Wingender, Benedict Clements & Gerd Schwartz (2013): Women, work, and the economy. Macroeconomic gains from gender equity. (IMF staff discussion note 2013,10), Washington, DC, 32 S.

Abstract

"Women make up a little over half the world's population, but their contribution to measured economic activity, growth, and well-being is far below its potential, with serious macroeconomic consequences. Despite significant progress in recent decades, labor markets across the world remain divided along gender lines, and progress toward gender equality seems to have stalled. Female labor force participation (FLFP) has remained lower than male participation, women account for most unpaid work, and when women are employed in paid work, they are overrepresented in the informal sector and among the poor. They also face significant wage differentials vis-à-vis their male colleagues. In many countries, distortions and discrimination in the labor market restrict women's options for paid work, and female representation in senior positions and entrepreneurship remains low. The challenges of growth, job creation, and inclusion are closely intertwined. While growth and stability are necessary to give women the opportunities they need, women's participation in the labor market is also a part of the growth and stability equation. In particular, in rapidly aging economies, higher female labor force participation can boost growth by mitigating the impact of a shrinking workforce. Better opportunities for women can also contribute to broader economic development in developing economies, for instance through higher levels of school enrollment for girls. This Staff Discussion Note examines the specific macro-critical features of women's participation in the labor market, the constraints preventing women from developing their full economic potential, and possible policies to overcome these obstacles. Implementing policies that remove labor market distortions and create a level playing field for all will give women the opportunity to develop their potential and to participate in economic life more visibly. The analysis presented in this Staff Discussion Note is based on research undertaken in academia and by other international financial institutions, in addition to the IMF's own surveillance and research work (Appendix 1)." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Haaland, Venke Furre, Mari Rege, Kjetil Telle & Mark Votruba (2013): The intergenerational transfer of the gender gap in labor force participation. (CESifo working paper 4489), München, 49 S.

Abstract

"Despite well-documented convergence during the later years of the 20th century, labor force attachment remains markedly higher for men than for women. The current paper employs rich longitudinal registry data to investigate the intergenerational transfer of the gender gap in labor force participation. We explore the extent that family- and community-level characteristics, measured in childhood, differentially predict the likelihood of employment for adult Norwegian men and women. Drawing on theories pertaining to the importance of information, skills and gender norms transfer, our empirical analysis demonstrates that a parsimonious set of family- and community-level characteristics can explain a substantial part of the gender gap. These results suggest that female labor force participation is constrained by the intergenerational transfer of beliefs and expectations about family and work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Janus, Alexander L. (2013): The implications of family policy regimes for mothers' autonomy. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 34, H. December, S. 96-110. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2013.09.001

Abstract

"This article is concerned with the implications of different state strategies in the area of family policy for mothers' autonomy, which I conceptualize as their freedom to choose between employment and homemaking as alternative means of self-fulfillment and economic independence. Using data on 15 OECD countries from the International Social Survey Program, I examine cross-national variation in 'the gap' between mothers' work-family orientations and employment trajectories. Cross-national variation in support for mothers' choice to work, mothers' choice to stay at home, or mothers' life-course flexibility differs from the broad picture suggest by previous research. Specifically, in contrast to suggestions that the well-developed childcare-related provisions in the Scandinavian countries and Belgium and France offer uniquely strong support for mothers' choice to work, I find that the large majority of countries (13 out of 15) offer at least moderately strong support for 'work-centered' mothers' choice or autonomy. In addition, I find that actual levels of labor force involvement exceeded ideals among the majority of 'home-centered' mothers in 7 out of 15 countries. Single mothers living in policy contexts with underdeveloped maternity leave provisions were especially likely to face incentives to work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Janus, Alexander L. (2013): The gap between mothers' work-family orientations and employment trajectories in 18 OECD countries. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 29, H. 4, S. 752-766. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcs055

Abstract

"Data on 18 OECD countries from the International Social Survey Program is used to examine the effect of aspects of the policy, economic, and ideological environment on the gap between mothers' work-family orientations and their actual employment trajectories over the life course. I find that there is significant cross-national variation in the gap between mothers' work-family orientations and labour market trajectories and that family policies, opportunities in the labour market, and the ideological context in different countries play an important role in accounting for variation in the orientations-employment gap. Consistent with what I call the agency moderation hypothesis, I find that mothers' responses to the broader policy, economic, and ideological environment are highly contingent on their work-family orientations. Women creatively use generous family leave provisions, take advantage of certain opportunities in the labour market, and adopt distinct compensatory strategies in the face of high childcare costs so as to minimize any discordance between their work-family orientations and actual labour force behaviour." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Korpi, Walter, Tommy Ferrarini & Stefan Englund (2013): Women's opportunities under different family policy constellations. Gender, class, and inequality tradeoffs in western countries re-examined. In: Social Politics, Jg. 20, H. 1, S. 1-40. DOI:10.1093/sp/jxs028

Abstract

"This article explores tradeoffs reflecting interaction effects between socioeconomic class and different types of family policies on gender inequalities in terms of agency and economic inequality in eighteen Organization for Economic and Cultural Development countries. We identify multiple dimensions in family policies, reflecting the extent to which legislation involves claim rights supporting mothers' paid work or supporting traditional homemaking. We use constellations of multidimensional policies in combination with multilevel analysis to examine effects on class selectivity of women into employment and glass ceilings with respect to women's access to top wages and managerial positions. Our results indicate that while major negative family policy effects for women with tertiary education are difficult to find in countries with well-developed policies supporting women's employment and work-family reconciliation, family policies clearly differ in the extent to which they improve opportunities for women without university education." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Thévenon, Olivier (2013): Drivers of female labour force participation in the OECD. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 145), Paris, 57 S. DOI:10.1787/5k46cvrgnms6-en

Abstract

"This paper analyses the response of female labour force participation to the evolution of labour markets and policies supporting the reconciliation of work and family life. Using country-level data from the early 1980s for 18 OECD countries, we estimate the influence of labour market and institutional characteristics on female labour force participation, and full-time and part-time employment participation. The relationship (interactions, complementarity) between different policy measures is also analyzed, as well as potential variations in the influence of policies across different Welfare regimes. The results first highlight how the increase in female educational attainment, the expansion of the service sector the increase in part-time employment opportunities have boosted women's participation in the labour force. By contrast, there is no such clear relationship between female employment rates and the growing share of public employment. Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation. Different policy instruments interact with each other to improve overall effectiveness. In particular, the coverage of childcare services is found to have a greater effect on women's participation in the labour market in countries with relatively high degrees of employment protection. The effect of childcare services on female full-time employment is particularly strong in Anglophone and Nordic countries. In all, the findings suggest that the effect of childcare services on female employment is stronger in the presence of other measures supporting working mothers (as, for instance paid parental leave) while the presence of such supports seems to reduce the effectiveness of financial incentives to work for second earners. The effect of cash benefits for families and the duration of paid leave on female labour force participation also vary across welfare regimes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Geschlechtsspezifische Ungleichheiten machen sich in allen Bereichen des Wirtschaftslebens bemerkbar und bedeuten sowohl für die betroffenen Personen als auch für die Volkswirtschaft insgesamt hohe Verluste in Form von entgangener Produktivität und niedrigeren Lebensstandards. Dieser neue OECD-Bericht befasst sich mit Lösungsansätzen zur Beseitigung dieser geschlechtsspezifischen Ungleichheiten unter folgenden thematischen Gesichtspunkten: Geschlechtergleichstellung, soziale Normen und öffentliche Politik sowie Geschlechtergleichstellung in Bildung, Berufsleben und Unternehmertum.
Die Kernaussagen lauten:
- Die Verbesserung der Geschlechtergleichheit beim Bildungsniveau hat einen stark positiven Effekt auf das Wirtschaftswachstum.
- Geschlechterstereotypen muss schon im jungen Alter bei den Bildungsentscheidungen in der Schule entgegengewirkt werden. So sollten beispielsweise Unterrichtsmethoden und -materialien angepasst werden, um Jungen stärker für das Lesen und Mädchen stärker für Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften zu begeistern; Mädchen sollten ermutigt werden, verstärkt naturwissenschaftliche, ingenieurwissenschaftliche und mathematische Studienfächer zu wählen und eine Berufstätigkeit in diesen Bereichen anzustreben.
- Gute und bezahlbare Kinderbetreuung ist ein ausschlaggebender Faktor für die Verbesserung der Geschlechtergleichstellung im Berufsleben. Veränderungen sind jedoch auch im familiären Kontext notwendig, da der überwiegende Teil der Hausarbeit und Kindererziehung in vielen Ländern immer noch von den Frauen geleistet wird. Diese Veränderungen können von der Politik unterstützt werden, beispielsweise durch Elternurlaubsregelungen, die Väter explizit einschließen.
- Fördermaßnahmen für Unternehmen in Frauenbesitz müssen auf alle Unternehmen, nicht nur auf Neugründungen und Kleinbetriebe, ausgerichtet werden. Es muss ein gleichberechtigter Zugang zu Finanzierungsmitteln für männliche und weibliche Unternehmer gewährleistet werden." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Abstract

"From unprecedented population ageing to increasing unemployment, from global leadership imbalances to persisting conflicts, from resource scarcity to volatile global food supplies, the world faces a series of interconnected challenges. The Global Agenda Council on Women's Empowerment aims to highlight how women's empowerment is a part of the solutions to these challenges.
This compendium outlines how women's advancement may impact and provide solutions to five specific global challenges:
- Demography
- Leadership
- Food Security and Agriculture
- Sustainability and Resource Scarcity
- Conflict
This report consists of five concise issue descriptions and links each challenge to women's empowerment and gender parity, with an emphasis on action items and recommendations. By shedding light on the link between women's empowerment and a specific challenge, this compendium aims to provide non-experts with a stronger elementary understanding of the impact that empowering women and girls can have on their area of interest." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bericat, Eduardo (2012): The European Gender Equality Index. Conceptual and analytical issues. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 108, H. 1, S. 1-28. DOI:10.1007/s11205-011-9872-z

Abstract

"This article presents a composite indicator designed to measure and compare existing structural gender equality in the countries of the European Union. The construction of an index is always a complex task which requires making a great many important conceptual, analytical and empirical decisions. This complexity explains the wide variety of gender equality indices created during the last 25 years. All the proposed indices attempt to measure the same thing, gender (in)equality, but none of them define the concept they want to measure in exactly the same way, nor do they operationalize measurement in the same manner. Taking into account the methodology of these preceding approaches, this article explains the basis for the most important analytical and conceptual decisions made in constructing the European Gender Equality Index. The article also includes the overall scores obtained by the 27 European countries on this index, on its three basic dimensions (education, work and power), and on the eighteen indicators that make up its structure. With this data, corresponding to 2009, an adequate analysis of gender equality in Europe can be established." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Hausmann, Ricardo, Laura D. Tyson & Saadia Zahidi (2012): The global gender gap report 2012. (The global gender gap report), Genf, 371 S.

Abstract

"The Global Gender Gap Report 2012 benchmarks national gender gaps of 135 countries on economic, political, education- and health-based criteria. The Global Gender Gap Index was developed in 2006, partially to address the need for a consistent and comprehensive measure of gender equality that can track a country's progress over time. The index points to potential role models by revealing those countries that - within their region or income group - are leaders in dividing resources more equitably between women and men than other countries, regardless of the overall level of resources available.
The Global Gender Gap Report 2012 emphasizes persisting gender gap divides across and within regions. Based on the seven years of data available for the 111 countries that have been part of the report since its inception, it finds that the majority of countries covered have made slow progress on closing gender gaps.
This year's findings show that Iceland tops the overall rankings in The Global Gender Gap Index for the fourth consecutive year. Finland ranks in second position, overtaking Norway (third). Sweden remains in fourth position. Northern European countries dominate the top 10 with Ireland in the fifth position, Denmark (seventh) and Switzerland (10th). New Zealand (sixth), Philippines (eighth) and Nicaragua (ninth) complete the top 10.
The index continues to track the strong correlation between a country's gender gap and its national competitiveness. Because women account for one-half of a country's potential talent base, a nation's competitiveness in the long term depends significantly on whether and how it educates and utilizes its women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Nopo, Hugo, Nancy Daza & Johanna Ramos (2012): Gender earning gaps around the world. A study of 64 countries. In: International Journal of Manpower, Jg. 33, H. 5, S. 464-513. DOI:10.1108/01437721211253164

Abstract

"The purpose of this paper is to analyze gender disparities in labor earnings for a comprehensive set of 64 countries.
Using the methodological approach proposed by Ñopo, socio-demographic characteristics are used to match males and females such that gender earnings disparities are computed only among individuals with the same observable characteristics.
Disparities are partially attributed to gender differences in observable socio-demographic and job characteristics. After matching males and females with the same characteristics, the authors found that the earnings gap falls within a range between 8 per cent and 48 per cent of average females' earnings, being more pronounced in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. The unexplained earnings gaps are more pronounced among part-time workers and those with low education levels.
This paper presents a comprehensive view of gender earnings gaps in the world, simultaneously exploring many of the issues highlighted in the related literature. It adds value by exploring gender gaps in a comparative perspective, applying the same methods for several different countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

(2012): The future of families to 2030. Paris, 283 S. DOI:10.1787/9789264168367-en

Abstract

"Die Art, wie Menschen zusammenleben, hat sich in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten dramatisch gewandelt: Es gibt immer weniger traditionelle Familien, dafür stieg die Zahl der Scheidungen, der nicht ehelichen Lebensgemeinschaften, der alleinerziehenden Mütter und Väter und der gleichgeschlechtlichen Partnerschaften stetig an. Die neue OECD-Studie 'The Future of Families to 2030' untersucht, wie sich die Familienstrukturen in den OECD-Ländern bis zum Jahr 2030 entwickeln könnten und widmet sich mit dieser Prognose einem bisher international wenig erforschten Bereich." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Thévenon, Olivier & Anne Solaz (2012): Labour market effects of parental leave policies in OECD countries. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 141), Paris, 67 S. DOI:10.1787/5k8xb6hw1wjf-en

Abstract

"This paper considers how entitlements to paid leave after the birth of children affect female labour market outcomes across countries. Such entitlements are granted for various lengths of time and paid at different rates, reflecting the influence of different objectives including: enhancing children's wellbeing, promoting labour supply, furthering gender equality in labour market outcomes, as well as budget constraints. Although parental care is beneficial for children, there are concerns about the consequences of prolonged periods of leave for labour market outcomes and gender equality. This paper therefore looks at the long-run consequences of extended paid leave on female, male, and gender differences in prime-age (25-54) employment rates, average working hours, and earnings in 30 OECD countries from 1970 to 2010.
It finds that extensions of paid leave lengths have a positive, albeit small, influence on female employment rates and on the gender ratio of employment, as long as the total period of paid leave is no longer than approximately two years. Additional weeks of leave, however, exert a negative effect on female employment and the gender employment gap. This paper also finds that weeks of paid leave positively affect the average number of hours worked by women relative to men, though on condition - once again - that the total duration of leave does not exceed certain limits. By contrast, the provision of paid leave widens the earnings gender gap among full-time employees." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"This report examines the conditions of women's engagement in the labour market, by estimating and analysing five key gaps, or gender differentials, between women and men which disadvantage women: in unemployment, in employment, in labour force participation, in vulnerability, and in sectoral and occupational segregation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

(2012): Inequality in labour income. What are its drivers and how can it be reduced? (OECD Economics Department policy notes 08), Paris, 8 S.

Abstract

"Many OECD countries have seen rising inequality over the past decade. Much of this rise has reflected a widening dispersion of labour income. The analysis presented in this note investigates the determinants of labour income inequality and suggests the following:
- Technological change widens the dispersion of income among full-time workers, though the size of the effect is difficult to gauge.
- Globalisation raises income inequality among full-time workers, but primarily if unions are weak or if employment protection is lax.
- Higher upper-secondary and tertiary education attainment is associated with a narrower distribution of labour income among full-time workers. A more equitable distribution of educational opportunities also contributes to a more equitable distribution of labour income.
- A smaller gap in employment protection between temporary and permanent work contracts is associated with a narrower income distribution. On average across countries, the latter type of contract is associated with an income penalty of around 25%.
- Immigrants underperform natives in terms of their income, even for similar levels of education.
- Women's labour income is considerably lower than that of men. Much, but not all of the income gap is due to women's shorter working hours, which in past OECD work have been found to reflect in part taxation issues and the lack of affordable childcare." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Viele Länder in aller Welt haben in den letzten Jahrzehnten erhebliche Fortschritte bei der Förderung der Gleichstellung der Geschlechter im Bildungsbereich erzielt. Auf einigen Gebieten erzielen die Mädchen heute bessere Ergebnisse als die Jungen, und sie brechen mit geringerer Wahrscheinlichkeit die Schule ab als Jungen. Doch damit ist erst der halbe Weg geschafft: Frauen verdienen noch immer weniger als Männer, sie gelangen seltener an die Spitze der Karriereleiter, und sie laufen größere Gefahr, die letzten Jahre ihres Lebens in Armut zu verbringen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Borck, Rainald (2011): Adieu Rabenmutter - the effect of culture on fertility, female labour supply, the gender wage gap and childcare. (CESifo working paper 3337), München, 39 S.

Abstract

"This paper studies the effect of cultural attitudes on childcare provision, fertility, female labour supply and the gender wage gap. Cross-country data show that fertility, female labour force participation and childcare are positively correlated with each other, while the gender wage gap seems to be negatively correlated with these variables. The paper presents a model with endogenous fertility, female labour supply and childcare choices which fits these facts. There may exist multiple equilibria: one with zero childcare provision, low fertility and female labour supply and high wage gap, and one with high childcare provision, high fertility and female labour supply and low wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bujard, Martin (2011): Geburtenrückgang und Familienpolitik. Ein interdisziplinärer Erklärungsansatz und seine empirische Überprüfung im OECD-Länder-Vergleich 1970-2006. (Wirtschafts- und Sozialpolitik 05), Baden-Baden: Nomos, 443 S. DOI:10.5771/9783845231211

Abstract

"Der Geburtenrückgang hat alle Industrieländer erfasst, jedoch in unterschiedlichem Ausmaß. Die Auswirkungen für die sozialen Sicherungssysteme, Wirtschaft und Staat sind von immenser Tragweite. Ob Familienpolitik die Geburtenrate beeinflussen kann, ist bisher umstritten. Angesichts der internationalen Gemeinsamkeit des Phänomens und der Länderunterschiede steht die Wissenschaft vor der Herausforderung einer integrierenden Erklärung, die auch den vielfältigen Entwicklungen seit 1970 gerecht wird. Der Autor untersucht die Ursachen des Geburtenrückgangs in neuartig breiter Dimension: 28 Länder werden über vier Jahrzehnte und anhand von 51 Faktoren analysiert. Es wird eine Erklärung entworfen, die ökonomische, gesellschaftliche, technische und politische Faktoren berücksichtigt und für den Beginn des Geburtenrückgangs und die heutige Ländervariation unterschiedliche Wirkmechanismen anführt. Die Makrostudie belegt einen erheblichen Einfluss der Familienpolitik und zeigt, welche Kontextbedingungen dabei wichtig sind. Die identifizierten politischen Maßnahmen können gleichzeitig die Lebensperspektiven für Familien verbessern und zur demografischen Nachhaltigkeit beitragen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Hausmann, Ricardo, Laura D. Tyson & Saadia Zahidi (2011): The global gender gap report 2011. (The global gender gap report), Genf, 366 S.

Abstract

"Der Index des Global Gender Gap Report bewertet 135 Länder, die über 93 % der Weltbevölkerung repräsentieren, dahingehend, wie gleichmäßig Ressourcen und Chancen unter der männlichen und weiblichen Bevölkerung verteilt werden. In dem Bericht wird der Umfang der Ungleichheit zwischen den Geschlechtern in den folgenden vier Bereichen gemessen: 1. Beteiligung am Wirtschaftsleben und Möglichkeiten - Gehälter, Beteiligung und hochqualifizierte Beschäftigung; 2. Bildung - Zugang zu Grund- und weiterführender Bildung; 3. Politische Beteiligung - Repräsentanz in Entscheidungsstrukturen; 4. Gesundheit und Lebenserwartung - Lebenserwartung und Geschlechterverhältnis." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Hegewisch, Ariane & Janet C. Gornick (2011): The impact of work-family policies on women's employment. A review of research from OECD countries. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 14, H. 2, S. 119-138. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2011.571395

Abstract

"All industrialized countries, as well as many developing and transition countries, have policies in place to support work-family reconciliation such as care-related leaves, policies that increase the quality or availability of flexible and alternative work arrangements, and childcare supports. While work-family policies share common elements across borders, the extent and nature of supports vary widely across countries. This cross-national diversity in policies has supported a substantial body of research on the effect of different policy designs on women's labor market outcomes and, increasingly, on men's take-up of work-family provisions. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of this research and to draw out implications in terms of policy designs that seem to maximize women's labor force participation, narrow the gender gap in earnings, and increase men's participation in caregiving at home. The paper reviews the research literature on leave policies, flexible and/or alternative work arrangements and childcare supports, and highlights the implications of policy designs for male take-up. The paper then discusses the growing literature on adverse and unintended consequences of work-family policies for gender equality and concludes by highlighting gaps in current knowledge." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Miranda, Veerle (2011): Cooking, caring and volunteering. Unpaid work around the world. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 116), Paris, 40 S. DOI:10.1787/5kghrjm8s142-en

Abstract

"Household production constitutes an important aspect of economic activity and ignoring it may lead to incorrect inferences about levels and changes in well-being. This paper sheds light on the importance of unpaid work by making use of detailed time-use surveys for 25 OECD member countries and 3 emerging economies. The calculations suggest that between one-third and half of all valuable economic activity in the countries under consideration is not accounted for in the traditional measures of well-being, such as GDP per capita. In all countries, women do more of such work than men, although to some degree balanced - by an amount varying across countries - by the fact that they do less market work. While unpaid work - and especially the gender division of unpaid work - is to some extent related to a country's development level, country cross-sectional data suggest that demographic factors and public policies tend to exercise a much larger impact. The regular collection of time-use data can thus be of tremendous value for government agencies to monitor and design public policies, and give a more balanced view of well-being across different societies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Nopo, Hugo, Nancy Daza & Johanna Ramos (2011): Gender earnings gaps in the world. (IZA discussion paper 5736), Bonn, 61 S.

Abstract

"This paper documents gender disparities in labor earnings for sixty-four countries around the world. Disparities are partially attributed to gender differences in observable sociodemographic and job characteristics. These characteristics are used to match males and females such that gender earnings disparities are computed only among individuals with the same characteristics, as in Nopo (2008). After comparing males and females with the same characteristics we found that the earnings gap falls within a range between 8% and 48% of average females' earnings, being more pronounced in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. The unexplained earnings gaps are more pronounced among part-time workers and those with low education." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

D'Addio, Anna Cristina & Herwig Immervoll (2010): Earnings of men and women working in the private sector. Enriched data for pensions and tax-benefit modeling. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 108), Paris, 50 S. DOI:10.1787/5km7smt2r7d2-en

Abstract

"The OECD's 'Average-Wage' (AW) concept is commonly used as a benchmark for tax-benefit and pension modeling. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether it is possible to use richer sets of earnings data in order to customize these modeling exercises to the situation of different groups of workers, such as high or low-earning men or women. We first take stock of available sources of earnings distribution data and provide a careful assessment of measurement and definitional differences relative to the AW. In a second step, information on the shape of earnings distributions in OECD countries is used to derive synthetic distributions around the AW, distinguishing between the earnings of men and women. We argue that this pragmatic approach yields data that allow extending the scope of tax-benefit and pensions modelling. Moreover, it does so in a way that is consistent with past modeling exercises that relied on the AW. We highlight data quality issues and discuss the potential limitations of the imputed AW-consistent earnings distributions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Hook, Jennifer L. (2010): Gender inequality in the welfare state. Sex segregation in housework, 1965 - 2003. In: American Journal of Sociology, Jg. 115, H. 5, S. 1480-1523. DOI:10.1086/651384

Abstract

"National context may influence sex segregation of household tasks through both pragmatic decision making and the normative context in which decision making is embedded. This study utilizes 36 time use surveys from 19 countries (spanning 1965 - 2003) combined with original national level data in multilevel models to examine household task segregation. Analyses reveal that men do less and women do more time inflexible housework in nations where work hours and parental leave are long. Women do less of this work where there is more public child care and men are eligible to take parental leave. National context affects the character of gender inequality in the home through individual and national level pathways." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))