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Cabrita, Jorge, Catherine Cerf & David Foden (2022): Overtime in Europe: Regulation and practice. (Eurofound research report / European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions), Dublin, 48 S. DOI:10.2806/095550

Abstract

"Despite the well-known adverse effects of regular long working hours on workers’ health, well-being and performance, many workers in the EU continue to work beyond their normal hours. Part of this additional working time is classified as overtime. This report takes a comparative overview of how overtime is regulated in the EU Member States, Norway and the United Kingdom, including its definition, the limits on its use and the compensation received by workers for working extra hours. The report assesses the extent of the phenomenon using national-level data, delves into the factors that explain it, and examines the potential consequences for workers and firms. Finally, the report summarises the current debate on the topic, as uncompensated working hours, structural overtime and monitoring of working hours are currently some of the most discussed work-related issues across the EU." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Working Time and Work-Life Balance Around the World provides a comprehensive review of both main aspects of working time – working hours and working time arrangements (also called work schedules) – and their effects on workers' work-life balance. The report reviews hours of work from several different perspectives, highlighting that, globally, over one-third of all workers are regularly working more than 48 hours per week, while a fifth of the global workforce is at the opposite end of the spectrum working short (part-time) hours less than 35 per week. It also analyses actual hours of work compared with workers' preferred number of hours, finding that, in particular, working longer hours than desired has negative effects on workers' reported work-life balance. Finally, the report provides an overview of working time-related crisis response measures deployed by governments and enterprises during COVID-19 pandemic, such as work sharing or short-time work and home-based telework, which helped to keep organizations functioning and workers employed. This global report concludes by summarizing the key findings of the entire report, which suggest the need to promote reduced hours of work and offer flexible working time arrangements, such as flexitime and telework, more widely; these types of policies would help to improve work-life balance and thereby benefit both workers and employers." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Carreño Bustos, José & Burak Uras (2021): Macro-Welfare Effects of Flexible-Hour Contracts. (CentER discussion paper 2021-30), Tilburg, 45 S.

Abstract

"Motivated with the rise of flex-hour labour contracts in advanced economies, we develop a DSGE model and study the macroeconomic welfare effects of flex-hour contracts for a small open economy in a currency union. The framework exhibits two sectors: a fixed (rigid) sector and a flex sector. The fixed sector offers rigid contracts in terms of hours and wages while the flex sector offers flex contracts in both dimensions. We find that the flex sector has a welfare-enhancing role in accommodating short-term shocks in the economy if the fixed sector’s hour adjustment exhibits a high degree of rigidity. We also show that the wage flexibility in the fixed sector has a general equilibrium interaction with hours-work in the flex sector, inducing wage flexibility in the fixed sector to be relatively more desirable compared to an economy without a flex sector. Our results thus have important policy implications for a wide range of countries in European-Monetary-Union - characterized by large flex sectors." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gracia, Pablo, Wen-Jui Han & Jianghong Li (2021): Nonstandard Work Schedules in Cross-National Perspective. A Study of 29 European Countries, 2005-2015. (SocArXiv papers), 20 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/mz53c

Abstract

"Data from the ‘European Working Conditions Survey’ from 2005 to 2015 for 29 European countries show that the incidence of nonstandard work schedules (evenings, nights, weekends, rotating, shifts) differs remarkably across European regions with different public policies. Working nonstandard schedules differs by education, gender and parental status across Europe." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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McDermott, Grant R. & Benjamin Hansen (2021): Labor Reallocation and Remote Work During COVID-19: Real-time Evidence from GitHub. (NBER working paper 29598), Cambridge, Mass, 46 S. DOI:10.3386/w29598

Abstract

"We investigate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on labor activity using real-time data from millions of GitHub users around the world. We show that the pandemic triggered a sharp pattern of labor reallocation at both the global and regional level. Users were more likely to work on weekends and outside of traditional 9 am to 6 pm hours, especially during the early phase of the pandemic. We also document considerable heterogeneity between different user groups and locations. Some locations show a steady reversion back to historical work patterns, while others have experienced persistent trend deviations in the wake of COVID-19. The pattern of labor reallocation is slightly more pronounced among males in our sample, suggesting that men may have benefited more from the increased flexibility provided by remote work than women. Finally, we show that the pattern of reallocation was accompanied by a simultaneous increase in overall activity, though this effect is more transient. We discuss several potential mechanisms and draw tentative conclusions for broader workplace trends given our study population." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gärtner, Johannes, Gabriele Michalitsch, Andrea Birbaumer, Marliese Mendel, Hans Binder, Helmut Stadlbauer, Agnieszka Piasna, Sybille Pirklbauer, Daiga Kamerade, Karin Sardadvar, Ursula Balderson, Simon Theurl, Senhu Wang, Dennis Tamesberger, Susanne Haslinger, Jürgen Figerl, Stan de Spiegelaere, Sylvia Stieler, Erich Pospischil, Hartmut Seifert, Adam Coutts, Michael Gogola, Bettina Stadler, Florentin Döller, Johanna Klösch, Benjamin Herr, Brendan Burchell & Waltraud Sawczak, Müller, Martin & Charlotte Reiff (Hrsg.) (2021): Arbeitszeit. Rahmenbedingungen – Ambivalenzen – Perspektiven. Wien: OGB Verlag, 352 S.

Abstract

"Lebenszeit ist ein wertvolles Gut, da diese nicht vermehrbar ist. Einen großen Teil unseres Lebens verbringen wir mit Erwerbsarbeit. Somit sind Fragen der Arbeitszeit in unserem Leben von zentraler Bedeutung. In diesem Buch haben die Herausgeber*innen Beiträge aus verschiedenen Bereichen der Wissenschaft gesammelt, die unterschiedliche Aspekte von Arbeitszeit beleuchten. Das Spektrum reicht von Rechtswissenschaft bis zu Arbeitsmedizin, es wird die nationale wie auch die europäische Dimension beleuchtet. In Praxisbeiträgen werden darüber hinaus konkrete Vorschläge für Regelungen und Modelle zur Diskussion gestellt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Piasna, Agnieszka (2020): Standards of Good Work in the Organisation of Working Time: Fragmentation and the Intensification of Work Across Sectors and Occupations. In: Management revue, Jg. 31, H. 2, S. 259-284. DOI:10.5771/0935-9915-2020-2-259

Abstract

"This article addresses the issue of good work in terms of working time organisation by exploring the link between diverse working time practices and work intensity. Existing studies have demonstrated that non-standard working hours expose workers to the pressures of work intensification, which can be defined as the compression of work activities into a unit of time. This article expands existing knowledge by investigating how the outcomes of non-standard working hours differ by sector and occupation, as well as by incorporating detailed and comprehensive measures of working time organisation in the empirical analysis. Based on EWCS data from 2010 and 2015 for 28 EU countries, the empirical analysis uses multilevel regression models with workers nested within countries. The results show that non-standard working hours and employer-driven scheduling are, on average, linked to more intense work than regular daytime hours scheduled from Monday to Friday or under worker-led flexibility arrangements. Consistent with expectations, the study points to significant differences in this relationship between sectors and occupations. Among others, in low-skilled and routine occupations, and service sectors such as transport, commerce, hospitality and health, short hours of work and employer-led flexibility are associated with relatively more intense work. Even where workers have some control over their schedules, jobs in these areas are not linked to lower levels of work intensity. The findings also support the expectation of overwork in high-skilled jobs, where long hours of work and high levels of worker-led flexibility are linked to relatively more intense work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chung, Heejung (2019): 'Women's work penalty' in access to flexible working arrangements across Europe. In: European journal of industrial relations, Jg. 25, H. 1, S. 23-40. DOI:10.1177/0959680117752829

Abstract

"Many assume that women and workers in female-dominated workplaces will have better access to flexible working arrangements. Some use this as justification for the low wages found in these workplaces. Yet, empirical results are mixed. I explore this question by examining workers' access to schedule control across 27 European countries, and find no discernible gender differences in access to schedule control when individual and company-level characteristics are taken into account. However, working in female-dominated jobs and/or sectors significantly reduces access to schedule control for both men and women. This 'women's work penalty' in female-dominated sectors varies across Europe but nowhere was the access better compared to sectors where both genders are equally represented. This raises concerns regarding the lack of favourable working conditions, in addition to low pay found in female-dominated workplaces." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hall, Axel & Gylfi Zoega (2019): Welfare, employment, and hours of work. (Economics. Discussion papers 2019-01), Kiel, 27 S.

Abstract

"The authors propose an explanation of why Europeans choose to work fewer hours than Americans and also suffer higher rates of unemployment. Labor market regulations, unemployment benefits, and high levels of public consumption in many European countries reduce, ceteris paribus, the gains from being employed, which makes employed workers ask for higher wages relative to productivity. The higher wages make firms offer fewer vacancies, as well as raising the level of consumption enjoyed by workers, which makes them want to enjoy more leisure because consumption and leisure are complements in the utility function." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Martin, John P. (2018): Live longer, work longer. The changing nature of the labour market for older workers in OECD countries. (IZA discussion paper 11510), Bonn, 29 S.

Abstract

"Population ageing poses stark dilemmas for labour markets, social protection systems and cultural norms. It will put strong downward pressure on labour supply, leading to falling real incomes and huge financial pressures on social protection systems unless there is an offsetting increase in employment rates. This is especially true for older workers whose employment rates are well below those of prime-age adults. In this paper, I examine how the labour market for older workers has evolved in OECD countries since 1990, what are the main forces at work, what are the main obstacles to working longer and how might public policies help overcome them. I also speculate about the future for older workers faced with the challenges and opportunities posed by the gig economy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2018): Innovative Arbeitszeitpolitik im Dienstleistungssektor. Antworten der Dienstleistungsgewerkschaften auf arbeitszeitpolitische Herausforderungen. (Hans-Böckler-Stiftung. Working paper Forschungsförderung 091), Düsseldorf, 89 S.

Abstract

"Im Gegensatz zur öffentlichen Wahrnehmung ist der Dienstleistungssektor in den Ländern der EU durch schnelle Veränderungs- und Anpassungsprozesse, ein hohes Arbeitsvolumen, atypische Arbeitszeiten und eine wachsende Entgrenzung von Arbeit und Freizeit gekennzeichnet. Hier setzt die vorliegende Studie an. Sie dokumentiert und analysiert Antworten der Gewerkschaften des Dienstleistungssektors in ausgewählten europäischen Ländern auf neue arbeitszeitpolitische Herausforderungen. Berücksichtigt wurden dabei vor allem jene Länder, in denen Arbeitszeitstandards hauptsächlich durch Tarifverträge reguliert werden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die programmatische Neuausrichtung gewerkschaftlicher Arbeitszeitpolitik im Dienstleistungssektor ein gutes Stück vorangekommen ist." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Sparreboom, Theo (2018): Occupational segregation by hours of work in Europe. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 157, H. 1, S. 65-82. DOI:10.1111/ilr.12017

Abstract

"This paper quantifies levels of occupational segregation between full-time and part-time work and attempts to identify some of the determinants of this segregation. In the first part of the analysis, segregation between full-time and part-time work is measured for all workers as well as within sub-groups of the employed - men, women, youth and adults for 15 European countries, using data from the European Labour Force Survey. The extent to which segregation is driven by constituent sub-groups is also analysed. It is demonstrated that occupational segregation by hours of work is generally higher for males than for females, suggesting that part-time pay penalties may be more important for men than for women, and higher for young workers than for adult workers.
The remainder of the paper uses regression analysis across countries to identify factors which drive segregation by hours of work. Three groups of variables are considered that are related to (1) the quantity of work; (2) the quality of work; and (3) institutional factors. It is found that segregation by hours of work for sub-groups of the employed is driven by different factors. In particular, segregation for men is correlated with the volume of work, while variables from all three groups are important for adult women and young workers." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Wingender, Asger M. (2018): A consistent measure of hours worked for international productivity comparisons. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 166, H. May, S. 14-17. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2018.02.009

Abstract

"Hourly labor productivity levels from the national accounts cannot be compared across countries, as national statistical offices use different data sources and methodologies to calculate hours worked. I compute a new, internationally comparable measure of hours worked for 25 OECD countries, and discuss the implications for productivity rankings." (Author's abstract, © 2018 Elsevier) ((en))

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Anxo, Dominique, Jean-Yves Boulin, Jorge Cabrita & Greet Vermeylen (2017): Working time patterns for sustainable work. (Eurofound research report / European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions), Dublin, 77 S. DOI:10.2806/736407

Abstract

"Working time is a recurrent topic of study because the nature of work, its content, the conditions under which it is performed and the labour market itself keep changing. This report provides an overview of the recent evolution of working time duration and organisation in the EU and highlights the most important trends and differences between Member States. Through an in-depth analysis of data from the sixth European Working Conditions Survey carried out in 2015, it examines - from a gender and life course perspective - the links between working time patterns, work - life balance and working time preferences, on the one hand, and workers' health and well-being on the other. Finally, the report explores the extent to which prevailing working conditions and working time patterns in EU Member States are sustainable in the long term." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Dolton, Peter (2017): Working hours: Past, present, and future. Work hours have been falling in developed countries - But where will they go in the future? (IZA world of labor 406), Bonn, 10 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.406

Abstract

"Kürzere Arbeitszeiten sind ungleich über Länder, Branchen und Berufe verteilt. Zugleich hält der Druck an, die Arbeitszeit aus Gründen der Work-Life-Balance weiter zu reduzieren. Ob und wie dies durch den technologischen Wandel erreicht werden kann, ohne dass es zu Einkommensumverteilungen zum Nachteil weniger qualifizierter Arbeitskräfte kommt, wird kontrovers diskutiert. Hier ein optimales Gleichgewicht zu finden, wird eine der großen Zukunftsaufgaben der Politik sein." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Hylkema, Tjerk H., Martin Stevens, Jan Van Beveren, Paul C. Rijk, Hans Peter van Jonbergen, Reinoud W. Brouwer, Sjoerd K. Bulstra & Sandra Brouwer (2017): Preoperative characteristics of working-age patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty. In: PLoS one, Jg. 12, H. 8, S. 1-14. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0183550

Abstract

"Objective: Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA) is performed more in working-age (<65 years) patients. Until now, research in this patient population has been conducted mainly among retired (=65 years) patients. Aim of this study was therefore to describe demographic, physical, psychological and social characteristics of working TKA patients and to subsequently compare these characteristics with retired TKA patients and the general population.
Methods: A cross-sectional analysis. Preoperative data of 152 working TKA patients was used. These data were compared with existing data of retired TKA patients in hospital registers and with normative values from literature on the general population. Demographic, physical, psychological and social (including work) characteristics were analyzed.
Results: The majority (83.8%) of working TKA patients was overweight (42.6%) or obese (41.2%), a majority (72.4%) was dealing with two or more comorbidities, and most (90%) had few depressive symptoms. Mean physical activity level was 2950 minutes per week. Compared to the retired TKA population, working TKA patients perceived significantly more stiffness and better physical functioning and vitality, were more physically active, and perceived better mental health. Compared to the general population working TKA patients perceived worse physical functioning, worse physical health and better mental health, and worked fewer hours.
Conclusion: This study shows that a majority of working TKA patients are overweight/obese, have multiple comorbidities, but are highly active in light-intensity activities and have few depressive symptoms. Working patients scored overall better on preoperative characteristics than retired patients, and except for physical activity scored overall worse than the general population." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Spiegelaere, Stand de & Agnieszka Piasna (2017): The why and how of working time reduction. Brüssel, 88 S.

Abstract

"After decades of incremental reduction in working time, recent years have shown signs of a reversed evolution. In response, the labour movement has reasserted its historic aim gradually to reduce working time. This guide aims to contribute to this debate by discussing why working time reduction can be desirable and how it can be organised. It is obvious that the effectiveness of working time reduction depends on how it is implemented. The many options are discussed using real-life experiments to illustrate their effectiveness. The review of the motivations behind working time reduction, the various ways of implementing it and an examination of five short case studies provide the groundwork for a much-needed discussion on how best to design a future-proof reduction in working time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2016): Work-life balance: Creating solutions for everyone. In: Foundation Focus H. 19, S. 1-18.

Abstract

"This issue of Foundation Focus looks at work - life balance and some of the factors that help or hinder workers in combining working with non-working life. Since average working hours have been decreasing steadily, it asks whether work - life balance still matters. How can the Working Time Directive help, and what role do flexible working time policies have? What specific supports are needed by those with care responsibilities for children or adults? Work - life balance is connected to other aspects of life, including the need for high-quality childcare, addressing the gender employment gap and making provision for older workers who cannot continue in full-time work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Anttila, Timo, Tomi Oinas, Mia Tammelin & Jouko Nätti (2015): Working-time regimes and work-life balance in Europe. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 31, H. 6, S. 713-724. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcv070

Abstract

"The organization of times and places of work are key elements of working conditions, and define employees' possibilities for balancing work and other life spheres. This study analyses several aspects of temporal and spatial flexibility, and their associations with employees' work-life balance. This study separates four dimensions of temporal flexibility and one indicator of spatial flexibility. The dimensions of temporal flexibility are the number of hours worked, when the hours are worked, work-time intensity, and the degree of working-time autonomy. The workplace flexibility indicator is an index of work locations. Work-life balance is analysed with work-hour fit. The analyses were based on the fifth wave of the European Working Conditions Survey collected in 2010. We used data from 25 Member States of the European Union (n?=?25,417). Based on the hierarchical cluster analysis, this study found various types of flexibility regimes in Europe. Country clusters show a clear effect on perceived work-life balance even after controlling for flexibility measurements at the individual level. This study contributes to the existing research in analysing several dimensions of temporal and spatial flexibility at the same time, as well as their associations to work-life balance." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kümmerling, Angelika & Steffen Lehndorff (2014): The use of working time-related crisis response measures during the Great Recession. (Conditions of work and employment series 44), Genf, 40 S.

Abstract

"In principle, two different types of working-time instruments were used to introduce working-time changes during the crisis. First, work-sharing schemes (with their country-specific institutional background and public subsidies); second, working-time adjustments based on unilateral or bilateral decisions taken at the level of the firm, with or without a framework of collective agreements, but in either case without public financial support. While the former have been studied extensively (Messenger and Ghosheh, 2013), the present report takes stock of working time-related crisis-response measures at the firm level beyond those supported by work-sharing schemes. It covers conventional instruments such as reductions of working time with or without financial compensation and variations in the use of overtime hours, but also more innovative approaches such as the use of working time accounts, 'working-time corridors' and various other forms of changes in working-time organization, such as teleworking or compressed working weeks." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lott, Yvonne (2014): Working time autonomy and time adequacy. What if performance is all that counts? (WSI-Diskussionspapier 188), Düsseldorf, 18 S.

Abstract

"To be able to combine work with activities and duties outside the workplace successfully, employees need time adequacy. Time adequacy is the fit between working time and all other time demands and can be achieved through working time flexibility and autonomy. However, past research has shown that working time flexibility and autonomy do not necessarily foster employees' time sovereignty. Studies suggest that the benefits of working time arrangements depend on work organization. Analyzing performance-related pay, target setting and self-directed teamwork as moderators for working time arrangements and time adequacy is therefore the main interest of the study. The data used is taken from the European Survey of Working Conditions in 2010. Multi-level analyses show that working time flexibility and autonomy, as well as self-directed teamwork, are positively associated with time adequacy. However, employees experience time squeeze with performance-related pay and target setting. Moreover, performance-related pay undermines the positive effect of working time autonomy. The study indicates that management practices have distinct connotations for time adequacy. Moreover, wage flexibility limits employees' benefits from working time autonomy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Salladarré, Frédéric & Stephane Hlaimi (2014): Women and part-time work in Europe. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 153, H. 2, S. 293-310. DOI:10.1111/j.1564-913X.2014.00205.x

Abstract

"This article examines female part-time employment in 23 European countries, distinguishing between 'short' and 'long' part-time employment. The short form, defined as less than 20 hours per week, is associated with the youngest and oldest age groups, slight disability, a higher number of children, lower skill levels, and employment in community, social and personal services. Although the incidence of part-time employment varies considerably across countries, long part-time employment is generally more widespread than short part-time employment, albeit with matching cross-country variations in the incidence of the two types. This suggests that they are complementary, rather than substitutes for one another." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sparreboom, Theo (2014): Gender equality, part-time work and segregation in Europe. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 150, H. 2, S. 245-268. DOI:10.1111/j.1564-913X.2014.00204.x

Abstract

"This article shows how both segregation by sex and segregation by hours shape the occupational space of part-time workers. The level of segregation by sex varies according to the shares of full-time and part-time work in total employment, and the trade-off between increasing the volume of female employment and decreasing segregation by sex is much stronger for full-time work. The author argues that there is less segregation by sex in part-time work than in full-time work; it is the gap between the volume of male and female part-time employment that determines the effect of part-time work an segregation in total employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (2014): Work preferences after 50. Third EQLS policy brief. (Foundation findings), Dublin, 23 S. DOI:10.2806/51644

Abstract

"This policy brief highlights findings on a specific topic from Eurofound's European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) that is of particular interest from a policy perspective. It brings results of the analysis of these data together with evidence from other Eurofound projects to formulate a number of policy pointers. The focus of this policy brief is the weekly working time preferences of people aged 50 and over." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Akgunduz, Yusuf Emre & Janneke Plantenga (2013): Labour market effects of parental leave in Europe. In: Cambridge Journal of Economics, Jg. 37, H. 4, S. 845-862. DOI:10.1093/cje/bes052

Abstract

"We investigate the aggregate-level effects of parental leave legislation on various labour market outcomes of women in 16 European countries for the period between 1970 and 2010. The paper updates and extends previous findings in the literature. The results show increases in participation rates that diminish with length and generosity of leave schemes. While pure participation numbers may not increase dramatically, there is strong evidence of increases in weekly working hours. On the other hand, a decrease in wages for high-skilled women and amplified occupational segregation are possible results of long parental leave schemes. We conclude with a discussion of the recent debates over extending minimum maternity and parental leave rights on the European level." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Anxo, Dominique, Christine Franz & Angelika Kümmerling (2013): Working time and work-life balance in a life course perspective. A report based on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey. Dublin, 72 S.

Abstract

"Understanding how working time is organised and how this is impacting on balance of work versus private life is of fundamental importance. This general statement is very much in accordance with the main objective of the Europe 2020 employment strategy, stating that at least 75% of the population aged 20 - 64 should be employed by 2020, necessitating in many Member States a significant increase in women's labour market participation. Drawing on data from Eurofound's fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), based on interviews with more than 38,000 respondents in 34 countries, this report documents the prevailing working time patterns of employees, the self-employed and lone parents across five country clusters. It also analyses the relationship between paid employment and domestic activities, work - life balance and working time preferences across the life course." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Broughton, Andrea (2013): EU employers take family-friendly working seriously. Dublin, 12 S.

Abstract

"A survey investigating family-friendly working policies in companies in six European countries (France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Sweden, UK) finds that employers take family-friendly working seriously and have put in place a range of policies to support this, especially in areas such as flexible working and parental support. The main driver for this in most countries was compliance with legislation or collective agreements. The economic crisis has had little impact on the provision of family-friendly working policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hanglberger, Dominik (2013): Arbeitszufriedenheit und Flexibilität. Europäischer Vergleich und Adaptions- und Antizipationseffekte. (Schriften des Forschungsinstituts Freie Berufe 21), Baden-Baden: Nomos, 311 S.

Abstract

"Die Fähigkeit flexibel auf veränderte Marktbedingungen reagieren zu können hat durch die Globalisierung an Bedeutung gewonnen. Infolgedessen ist eine zunehmende Verbreitung flexibler Arbeitszeiten und Beschäftigungsverhältnisse zu konstatieren. Vor dem Hintergrund dieser Entwicklung wird in der Studie der Frage nachgegangen, welche Rolle Flexibilität für die Qualität der Arbeit aus Sicht von Arbeitnehmern und Selbstständigen spielt. Dazu werden in einem ersten Schwerpunkt regionale Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede hinsichtlich des Einflusses arbeitgeber- und arbeitnehmerorientierter Flexibilität auf die Arbeitszufriedenheit analysiert. In einem zweiten Schwerpunkt wird der zeitliche Verlauf des Effekts auf die Arbeitszufriedenheit (kurz- und langfristige Wirkung) untersucht. Mit Gleitzeitregelungen und Wechselschichtarbeit sowie mit (un)befristeter Beschäftigung und Selbständigkeit werden je zwei zentrale Formen flexibler Arbeitszeiten und Beschäftigungsverhältnisse betrachtet. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen auch allgemein die Bedeutung der Berücksichtigung von Antizipations- und Adaptionseffekten bei der Analyse subjektiver Wohlfahrtsmaße wie der Arbeitszufriedenheit." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Hipp, Lena & Stefan Stuth (2013): Management und Teilzeit? Eine empirische Analyse zur Verbreitung von Teilzeitarbeit unter Managerinnen und Managern in Europa. In: Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Jg. 65, H. 1, S. 101-128. DOI:10.1007/s11577-013-0193-x

Abstract

"Im Zuge der Debatte um betriebliche Flexibilität und Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf wird Teilzeitarbeit immer wieder als Problemlösung angeführt. Dennoch arbeiten viele Menschen entgegen ihrer Präferenz in Vollzeit. Ganz besonders trifft dies auf Führungspersonal zu. Der Artikel befasst sich daher mit den Bestimmungsfaktoren für die Verbreitung von Teilzeitarbeit unter Managerinnen und Managern. Ziel unserer Untersuchung ist es, die Umstände zu identifizieren, unter denen Manager trotz formeller und informeller Hürden ihre Arbeitszeit reduzieren und zu erklären, warum wir große Unterschiede in der Verbreitung von 'Teilzeit-Managern' innerhalb Europas finden. Unsere Mehrebenenanalysen der Europäischen Arbeitskräfteerhebung aus dem Jahr 2009 zeigen, dass nicht rechtliche, sondern in erster Linie kulturelle Faktoren und normative Erwartungshaltungen diese Unterschiede erklären." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Kümmerling, Angelika (2013): Arbeiten und Leben in Europa. Arbeitszeit und Work-Life-Balance aus einer Lebensphasenperspektive. (IAQ-Report 2013-02), Duisburg, 18 S. DOI:10.17185/duepublico/45690

Abstract

"- Die Arbeitszeiten von Männern und Frauen unterscheiden sich im EU-Vergleich weiterhin deutlich. Besonders ausgeprägt sind die Unterschiede in den Niederlanden, Großbritannien und Irland, aber auch in Deutschland liegen sie deutlich über dem EU-Durchschnitt.
- Arbeitszeiten und Beschäftigungsquote von Frauen zeigen einen negativen Zusammenhang. EU-weit gilt: je höher die Beschäftigungsquote von Frauen, desto niedriger die wöchentlichen Arbeitszeiten.
- Kritischer Faktor für die weibliche Erwerbstätigkeit ist weiterhin Mutterschaft und Kinderbetreuung.
- Eine deutliche Mehrheit der abhängig Beschäftigten in der EU gibt an, dass berufliche und private Verpflichtungen gut oder sehr gut zusammenpassen. Dabei sind Männer im Durchschnitt unzufriedener mit ihrer Work-Life-Balance als Frauen.
- Positive Effekte auf die Work-Life-Balance haben sowohl flexible Arbeitszeiten mit Zeitautonomie als auch regelmäßige und vorhersehbare Arbeitszeiten. Negativ auf die Work-Life-Balance wirken sich dagegen atypische Arbeitszeiten sowie das Vorhandensein von Kindern aus." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Abstract

"In 2012, average collectively agreed weekly working time in the European Union, including Croatia, stood at 38.1 hours, the same as for the EU27 in 2011. The working week was on average 30 minutes shorter in the pre-2004 EU15 countries and over 1 hour and 30 minutes longer in the new Member States. Agreed normal annual working time averaged nearly 1,712 hours in the European Union as a whole - 1,678 hours in the EU15 and 1,824 hours in the new Member States. Of the three sectors examined, banking recorded the shortest average agreed normal weekly working hours with 37.6 hours, although this represents an increase of 0.2 hours on 2011. In the local government sector the average was 37.8 hours and in metalworking it was 37.9 hours. When collectively agreed paid annual leave entitlements are accounted for, average annual leave stood at 25.3 days across the EU, including Croatia, being slightly higher in the EU15 countries (26.7 days) and considerably lower in the new Member States (20.8 days)." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Arlinghaus, Anna & Friedhelm Nachreiner (2012): Arbeit zu unüblichen Zeiten. Arbeit mit unüblichem Risiko. In: Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft, Jg. 66, H. 4, S. 291-305.

Abstract

"Arbeitszeiten an Abenden oder Wochenenden gelten als biologisch und sozial ungünstig. Bislang bestehen jedoch nur unzureichende Erkenntnisse darüber, welche Effekte diese Arbeitszeiten einzeln und in Kombination auf die WorkLife-Balance, Gesundheit und Sicherheit der Beschäftigten haben. Logistische Regressionsanalysen der 4. Europäischen Erhebung über die Arbeitsbedingungen (2005, n=23.934 abhängig Beschäftigte) ergaben, dass regelmäßige Arbeit an Abenden, Samstagen und Sonntagen mit einem erhöhten Risiko für arbeitsbedingte Unfälle sowie Beeinträchtigungen der Gesundheit und der Work-Life-Balance zusammenhängt. Dies konnte auch unter Kontrolle verschiedener Kovariaten (demographische und Arbeitsmerkmale) gezeigt werden. Arbeit zu sozial und biologisch ungünstigen Zeiten stellt damit unabhängig von Schichtarbeit einen deutlichen Risikofaktor für die Einhaltung von Arbeitsschutzzielen dar." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Ciccia, Rossella & Mieke Verloo (2012): Parental leave regulations and the persistence of the male breadwinner model. Using fuzzy-set ideal type analysis to assess gender equality in an enlarged Europe. In: Journal of European social policy, Jg. 22, H. 5, S. 507-528. DOI:10.1177/0958928712456576

Abstract

"This paper uses fuzzy-set ideal type analysis to assess the conformity of European leave regulations to four theoretical ideal typical divisions of labour: male breadwinner, caregiver parity, universal breadwinner and universal caregiver. In contrast to the majority of previous studies, the focus of this analysis is on the extent to which leave regulations promote gender equality in the family and the transformation of traditional gender roles. The results of this analysis demonstrate that European countries cluster into five models that only partly coincide with countries' geographical proximity. Second, none of the countries considered constitutes a universal caregiver model, while the male breadwinner ideal continues to provide the normative reference point for parental leave regulations in a large number of European states. Finally, we witness a growing emphasis at the national and EU levels concerning the universal breadwinner ideal, which leaves gender inequality in unpaid work unproblematized." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ohanian, Lee E. & Andrea Raffo (2012): Aggregate hours worked in OECD countries. New measurement and implications for business cycles. In: Journal of monetary economics, Jg. 59, H. 1, S. 40-56. DOI:10.1016/j.jmoneco.2011.11.005

Abstract

"We build a dataset of quarterly hours worked for 14 OECD countries. We document that hours are as volatile as output, that a large fraction of labor adjustment takes place along the intensive margin, and that the volatility of hours relative to output has increased over time. We use these data to reassess the Great Recession and prior recessions. The Great Recession in many countries is a puzzle in that labor wedges are small, while those in the U.S. Great Recession - and those in previous European recessions - are much larger." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Thevenon, Olivier & Anne Solaz (2012): Labour market effects of parental leave policies in OECD countries. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 141), Paris, 67 S. DOI:10.1787/5k8xb6hw1wjf-en

Abstract

"This paper considers how entitlements to paid leave after the birth of children affect female labour market outcomes across countries. Such entitlements are granted for various lengths of time and paid at different rates, reflecting the influence of different objectives including: enhancing children's wellbeing, promoting labour supply, furthering gender equality in labour market outcomes, as well as budget constraints. Although parental care is beneficial for children, there are concerns about the consequences of prolonged periods of leave for labour market outcomes and gender equality. This paper therefore looks at the long-run consequences of extended paid leave on female, male, and gender differences in prime-age (25-54) employment rates, average working hours, and earnings in 30 OECD countries from 1970 to 2010.
It finds that extensions of paid leave lengths have a positive, albeit small, influence on female employment rates and on the gender ratio of employment, as long as the total period of paid leave is no longer than approximately two years. Additional weeks of leave, however, exert a negative effect on female employment and the gender employment gap. This paper also finds that weeks of paid leave positively affect the average number of hours worked by women relative to men, though on condition - once again - that the total duration of leave does not exceed certain limits. By contrast, the provision of paid leave widens the earnings gender gap among full-time employees." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (2012): Working time in the EU. (Foundation findings), Dublin, 23 S. DOI:10.2806/30961

Abstract

"The number of hours worked per week continues to drift downwards, on average - the result of more people working part time, fewer people working long hours, and a fall in the collectively agreed working hours in many countries. Foundation Findings provide pertinent background information and policy pointers for all actors and interested parties engaged in the current European debate on the future of social policy. The contents are based on Foundation research and reflect its autonomous and tripartite structure." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fagan, Colette & Pierre Walthery (2011): Individual working-time adjustments between full-time and part-time working in European firms. In: Social Politics, Jg. 18, H. 2, S. 269-299. DOI:10.1093/sp/jxr011

Abstract

"We draw on Sen's capabilities approach to advance the debate about choice and constraint in relation to part-time work. We argue that it is important to go beyond a state-level comparison and focus on the policy implemented by employers at the organizational level. We use a European survey to identify which employers permit their employees to make individual-level adjustments between full-time and part-time working, and the firm-level characteristics associated with operating such a policy. The analysis reveals that employer policy varies markedly across countries and within countries and we argue that this is an important social conversion factor which shapes the capability which an individual employee has to adjust their hours between full time and part time at their place of work. State policy clearly matters, but firm-level characteristics and other situational features also impact on the social conversion factors which shape an individual's workingtime capability. The sector, establishment size, presence of a trade union, gender and skill composition of the workforce all had a significant influence on whether employers permitted individual-level working-time adjustments. The firm's organizational working-time practices and culture toward safeguarding work - life balance had an additional and independent effect, as did broader aspects of working-time scheduling in place." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Galvez-Munoz, Lina, Paula Rodriguez-Modrono & Monica Dominguez-Serrano (2011): Work and time use by gender. A new clustering of European welfare systems. In: Feminist economics, Jg. 17, H. 4, S. 125-157. DOI:10.1080/13545701.2011.620975

Abstract

"Using Harmonised European Time-Use Survey (HETUS) data, this study shows how care work that takes place outside the marketplace represents an essential and distinctive part of national economies. Cross-national comparisons show persistent patterns and differences in observed gender inequalities on total workload and care responsibilities. This country-by-country and group-by-group analysis is based on cluster methodology. The main finding is that including time use in gendered analyses of welfare regimes shows how unpaid care work is at the core of gender inequality in all countries. The results of this analysis indicate that Eastern European countries are very heterogeneous and are distributed across three out of the four clusters obtained, a finding that constitutes a new departure point for analysis. Based on these findings, this study makes public policy recommendations about the importance of time-use surveys and how to improve the quality of care without decreasing women's well-being and autonomy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

MacDaniel, Cara (2011): Forces shaping hours worked in the OECD, 1960-2004. In: American Economic Journal. Macroeconomics, Jg. 3, H. 4, S. 27-52. DOI:10.1257/mac.3.4.27

Abstract

"The goal of this paper is to examine the role of taxes and productivity growth as forces influencing market hours. To achieve this goal, the paper considers a calibrated growth model extended to include home production and subsistence consumption, both of which are found to be key features influencing market hours. The model is simulated for 15 OECD countries. The primary force driving changes in market hours is found to be changing labor income tax rates. Productivity catch-up relative to the United States is found to be an important secondary force." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Messenger, Jon C. (2011): Working time trends and developments in Europe. In: Cambridge Journal of Economics, Jg. 35, H. 2, S. 295-316. DOI:10.1093/cje/beq022

Abstract

"The objective of this paper is to summarise what is known about key trends and developments in working time across Europe. The European Region analysed in this paper includes not only the 27 current member states of the European Union (EU), but extends even beyond its borders. This paper review trends and patterns in working hours in the broadest range of countries possible given data limitations (especially outside the EU), with a focus on: average weekly hours of work and the proportion of workers working 'excessively long hours' (defined as usual working hours of 48 or more per week); developments regarding one unique form of working time arrangement, part-time work, with a focus on the incidence of part-time work in each country, changes in this incidence over time, the female share of part-time employment and issues related to the quality of part-time jobs; and finally considers trends in the organisation of working time across Europe, with a focus on the incidence of non-standard work schedules (e.g. night work and weekend work) and shift work, as well as the extent to which various types of flexible working time arrangements are being deployed in individual enterprises. Finally, the paper presents some policy suggestions within a broad framework designed to advance the International Labour Organisation (ILO) concept of decent work in the area of working time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Ngai, Rachel & Christopher A. Pissarides (2011): Taxes, social subsidies, and the allocation of work time. In: American Economic Journal. Macroeconomics, Jg. 3, H. 4, S. 1-26. DOI:10.1257/mac.3.4.1

Abstract

"We examine the allocation of hours of work across industrial sectors in OECD countries. We find large disparities across three sector groups, one that produces goods without home substitutes, and two others that have home substitutes but are treated differently by welfare policy. We attribute the disparities to the countries' tax and subsidy policies. High taxation substantially reduces hours in sectors that have close home substitutes but less so in other sectors. Subsidies increase hours in the subsidized sectors that have home substitutes. We compute these policy effects for 19 OECD countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Wirtz, Anna, Friedhelm Nachreiner & Katharina Rolfes (2011): Sonntagsarbeit. Auswirkungen auf Sicherheit, Gesundheit und Work-Life-Balance der Beschäftigten. In: Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft, Jg. 65, H. 2, S. 136-146.

Abstract

"Obwohl die Anzahl der Beschäftigten in biologisch und sozial ungünstigen Arbeitszeiten stetig steigt, liegen bislang nur äußerst wenige Erkenntnisse zu den Effekten der Arbeit am Wochenende, und insbesondere an Sonntagen, auf die Sicherheit, Gesundheit und soziale Teilhabe der Beschäftigten vor. Die vorliegende Studie demonstriert anhand der Daten aus zwei großen und repräsentativen europäischen Umfragen, dass Arbeit an Sonntagen das Risiko für arbeitsbedingte Unfälle sowie gesundheitliche und soziale Beeinträchtigungen deutlich erhöht. Diese Zusammenhänge lassen sich auch nach der Kontrolle potenziell konfundierender Effekte nachweisen. Das durch Sonntagsarbeit offensichtlich erhöhte Risiko für die Gefährdung von Arbeitsschutzzielen sollte daher in der Diskussion um die gesetzlichen Spielräume für die Sonntagsarbeit, z. B. im Einzelhandel, wie bei einer möglichen Revision der europäischen Arbeitszeitrichtlinie sowie insbesondere bei der Gestaltung der konkreten Arbeitszeiten auf jeden Fall angemessen berücksichtigt werden." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Abstract

"In 2010, average collectively agreed weekly working time in the European Union stood at 38 hours. The figure was 0.4 hours lower in the pre-2004 EU15 and 1.7 hours higher in the new Member States. Agreed normal annual working time averages around 1,708 hours - around 1,693 hours in the EU15 and 1,797 in the new Member States. Of three sectors examined, agreed weekly hours are longest in metalworking and local government (37.8 hours), and shortest in banking (37.3 hours). Average collectively agreed paid annual leave entitlement stood at 25.4 days across the EU in 2010, being higher among countries in the EU15 (where it was 25.6 days) than in the 12 new Member States (24.1 days)." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Carley, Mark (2010): Working time developments 2009. Dublin, 31 S.

Abstract

"In 2009, average collectively agreed weekly working time in the European Union stood at 38.7 hours. The figure was 0.8 hours lower in the pre-2004 EU15 and 0.9 hours higher in the new Member States. Agreed normal annual working time averages around 1,750 hours - just above 1,700 in the EU15 and a little over 1,800 in the new Member States. Of three sectors examined, agreed weekly hours are highest in retail, followed by chemicals and the civil service. Average collectively agreed paid annual leave entitlement stood at 24.5 days across the EU in 2009. This EIRO report also examines statutory working time and leave limits, and actual working hours." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Händel, Thomas, Steffen Lehndorff, Alexandra Wagner & Christine Franz (2010): Arbeitszeitentwicklung in Europa. [Brüssel], 148 S.

Abstract

Seit den 1980er Jahren hat sich die Arbeitszeitlandschaft in Europa zunehmend ausdifferenziert. Auf der einen Seite hat sich die Standardisierung der Arbeitszeiten mittels Tarifvertrag oder - von zunehmender Bedeutung - per Gesetz weiter ausgebreitet. So wurde in den mittel- und osteuropäischen Ländern (wie zuvor in Portugal) nach und nach die gesetzliche Verankerung des 40-Stunden-Standards nachvollzogen. Zugleich wurde mit der Europäischen Arbeitszeitrichtlinie der europäische Standard einer Höchstarbeitszeit von 48 Stunden pro Woche festgeschrieben. Der Bericht enthält eine Bestandsaufnahme der Unterschiede und der Veränderungen in der Arbeitszeitdauer in den Ländern der EU in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten. Ein Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf der widersprüchlichen Entwicklung bei den Arbeitszeiten von Vollzeitbeschäftigten. Während die Arbeitszeiten in den osteuropäischen Ländern weitgehend um die 41-Stunden-Marke streuen, sind innerhalb der EU-15 sowohl mittel- als auch kurzfristig unterschiedliche Tendenzen zu beobachten. Auffällig sind insbesondere die Arbeitszeitschwankungen in Frankreich. Bei der Teilzeitarbeit sind sowohl die Länderunterschiede als auch die Veränderungsdynamiken wesentlich stärker ausgeprägt als bei der Vollzeitarbeit. Auch die starke und sehr unterschiedliche Dynamik der geschlechtsspezifischen Arbeitszeitunterschiede wird herausgearbeitet. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt sind die kontrastierenden Tendenzen bei der Herausbildung neuer gesellschaftlicher Arbeitszeitstandards: Die unterschiedlich starke Ausdifferenzierung der Arbeitszeiten in den Ländern der EU findet ihren Ausdruck in den Veränderungen der Häufigkeit bestimmter Wochenarbeitszeiten. Auch hinsichtlich der Arbeitszeiten in Paarhaushalten zeigt sich eine große Differenziertheit in der EU. Bei ungewöhnlichen Arbeitszeiten lässt sich kein einheitlicher Trend feststellen. (IAB)

Zitatform

Kerkhofs, Marcel, Amelia Román & Peter Ester (2010): Flexibility profiles of European companies. European Company Survey 2009. Dublin, 45 S.

Abstract

"This report analyses European corporate practices in terms of working time flexibility as revealed by the European Company Survey 2009 (ECS 2009). Flexibility in working time is a central aspect of ongoing debates regarding boosting employment in the EU. Enabling employees to better balance their working time and domestic responsibilities is seen as a key way of encouraging more citizens to enter and remain in the workforce. At the same time, greater working time flexibility on the part of companies - and hence, employees - can enable European enterprises to be more responsive to market demands, so boosting the Union's competitiveness." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Kotowska, Irena E., Anna Matysiak, Marta Styrc, Ariane Pailhe, Anne Solaz & Daniele Vignoli (2010): Second European quality of life survey. Family life and work. Dublin, 96 S.

Abstract

"Demographic change and labour market developments impact significantly on the family life and work of Europeans, with far-reaching consequences for the future. The policy approach in this area has in recent years focused on increasing the employment rates of women, finding ways for both men and women to achieve a better work - life balance and, more recently, promoting a rise in birth rates. This report explores the subject of work and family life across Europe, looking at ways to find a better balance between the demands of work and family responsibilities. Based on data from the second European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS), conducted by Eurofound in 2007, the report analyses tensions between work demands and household and care tasks, against a background of different institutional settings, labour market structures and cultural factors. The findings point to the need for the introduction of measures to adjust working arrangements to the demands of family life, more equal sharing of care responsibilities between men and women, and the improvement of care services for elderly people in order to support family networks in carrying out their care responsibilities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Morley, John, Fadila Sanoussi, Isabella Biletta & Felix Wolf (2010): Comparative analysis of working time in the European Union. Dublin, 59 S.

Abstract

"The number of hours worked every week or year, and the way in which work is organised, are issues of central concern and interest to both employees and employers. In the case of employees, working hours have a direct bearing on standard of living, level of work-life balance and the overall sustainability of working life. For employers, working time is a key element in the calculation of costs, productivity and competitiveness. Working time, and its regulation, is likewise an important policy issue for national governments. This report, covering the 27 Member States of the EU and Norway, focuses on changes in working time and practices relating to the organisation of work over the period 2000-2006." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Otterbach, Steffen (2010): Mismatches between actual and preferred work time. Empirical evidence of hours constraints in 21 countries. In: Journal of consumer policy, Jg. 33, H. 2, S. 143-161. DOI:10.1007/s10603-009-9116-7

Abstract

"This paper analyses the discrepancy between actual and desired working hours in a multinational setting. Using the latest data of the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) with a focus on work orientations hours constraints in 21 heterogeneous countries are analysed. One major finding is that hours constraints are interrelated with macroeconomic variables such as (a) unemployment rates, (b) GDP per capita as a measure of welfare, (c) average weekly work hours, and (d) income inequality. A subsequent multivariate analysis reveals that, on both macro- and microlevels, sociodemographic variables like prosperity and income, high risk of unemployment, and working conditions play an important role in determining working hours constraints. The results further suggest that, with respect to working conditions, such constraints are also affected by gender issues." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Plantenga, Janneke & Chantal Remery (2010): Flexible working time arrangements and gender equality. A comparative review of 30 European countries. Brüssel, 128 S. DOI:10.2767/29844

Abstract

"Increased flexibility of working time arrangements and promotion of gender equality are two important elements in the EU's employment policy. In many instances, increased flexibility has a positive effect on gender equality, although this is not always the case. This review from the EU Expert Group on Gender and Employment sets out the relationship between working time flexibility and gender equality and compares the state of play in 30 European countries (EU-27 and EEA/EFTA). It gives an overview of working time flexibility throughout Europe as well as in-depth analysis of flexibility in terms of length and organisation of working time. Information is also provided on the regulatory framework and recent policy developments in the field. In addition, the review comprises a detailed statistical annex." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))