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Fluchtmann, Jonas, Mark Keese & Willem Adema (2024): Gender equality and economic growth. Past progress and future potential. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 304), Paris, 45 S. DOI:10.1787/fb0a0a93-en

Abstract

"Despite women’s increased participation in the labor market significantly contributing to past economic growth, persistent gender gaps across OECD labour markets hinder full realization of the potential gains of women’s economic participation. This paper analyses the economic implications of these gaps and evaluates the potential for future growth through greater gender equality in labor market outcomes. Utilising two methodological frameworks, the paper first employs growth accounting to measure the contribution of women's employment to past economic growth. The paper then uses a simplified version of the OECD Long-Term Model in conjunction with projections on future labor force dynamics to estimate the impact of greater gender equality on the labor market. These analyses provide insight into the potentially significant economic benefits of closing persistent gender gaps across OECD countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Adema, Willem, Jonas Fluchtmann, Alexandre Lloyd & Valentina Patrini (2023): Paid parental leave: Big differences for mothers and fathers. In: OECD Statistics blog, S. 1-13.

Abstract

"Employment-protected paid parental leave is a central element of family policy in most OECD countries. Paid parental leave primarily aims to support parents and children by letting both parents take time off paid work to care for a very young child. This is good for many things, including household finances, child development and parental well-being. Paid leave policies can also promote a better sharing of unpaid work within households by encouraging fathers to use their leave entitlements and get more involved in childcare. Data on availability and use of paid leave entitlements is crucial for understanding the effectiveness of such policies. However, the design of paid leave policy varies markedly across countries, which complicates measuring progress in its use. The OECD Family Database provides an overview of parental leave systems and their use across OECD countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Andre, Christophe, Orsetta Causa, Emilia Soldani, Douglas Sutherland & Filiz Unsal (2023): Promoting gender equality to strengthen economic growth and resilience. (OECD Economics Department working papers 1776), Paris, 23 S. DOI:10.1787/54090c29-en

Abstract

"Women's employment rates and wages are still lagging those of men across OECD countries, with average employment and wage gaps now around 15% and 12% respectively. Gaps narrowed at a relatively modest pace over the past decade, calling for further policy action. A lack of affordable high-quality childcare is often an obstacle to women's participation in the labor market and notably to working full time. A very unequal sharing of parental leave between parents and challenges upon return to work further hampers women's careers. Biases in the tax system may discourage women from working in some countries. Women face disadvantage in accessing management positions and entrepreneurship. A range of policies can help reduce gender gaps, including better childcare provision, incentivizing parents to better share parental leave, re-skilling and upskilling on return from parental leave, encouraging gender equality within firms, integration programs for foreign-born women, promoting women entrepreneurship and financial inclusion, and levelling taxation for second earners. Moreover, the multiple dimensions and root causes of gender inequality call for mainstreaming gender across policy domains." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Azzollini, Leo, Richard Breen & Brian Nolan (2023): From gender equality to household earnings equality: The role of women’s labour market outcomes across OECD countries. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 86. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2023.100823

Abstract

"We assess the impact that full gender equality in the labour market would have on earnings inequality between households, and then decompose that impact by looking separately at the roles played by gender gaps in employment, hours, and pay. We do this by applying a reweighting method to LIS data for 22 OECD countries, across North America, Europe, and Australia. We find that full equality in earnings and employment between women and men would reduce household earnings inequality considerably, with the most substantial reductions coming from closing the gender gap in employment as opposed to closing the gaps in pay and hours worked. A 10% counterfactual decrease in the gender employment gap (relative to the country baseline) is associated with an average 0.6% decline in the Gini for household earnings inequality. Reducing the gender employment gap is thus the pathway through which greater gender equality may most strongly mitigate overall earnings inequality among households: these two key goals for contemporary societies can be pursued simultaneously." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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Bratti, Massimiliano (2023): Fertility postponement and labor market outcomes. Postponed childbearing improves women's labor market outcomes but may reduce overall fertility. (IZA world of labor 117), Bonn, 11 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.117.v2

Abstract

"Die zeitliche Verlagerung der Mutterschaft kann sich für Frauen ökonomisch positiv auswirken, indem sie vor der Geburt ihr Humankapital vergrößern, ihre Erwerbsbeteiligung intensivieren und ihr Einkommen steigern können. Umgekehrt kann dies die Realisierung von (weiteren) Kinderwünschen verhindern. Empirisch lässt sich zeigen, dass eine Verschiebung der Mutterschaft Arbeitsmarktnähe und Lohnniveau deutlich erhöht, zugleich aber weniger Kinder zu haben wahrscheinlicher macht. Hier sollte die Familienpolitik ansetzen: durch öffentliche Kinderbetreuungsangebote, finanzielle Anreize für Firmen, die betriebliche Angebote schaffen, sowie durch Elternzeitprogramme, die die Kinderbetreuungsaufgaben gerechter auf Väter und Mütter verteilen. Facebook Twitter" (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Lee, Cheol-Sung & Taekyeong Goh (2023): Union brokerage and the gender gap in the labor market. A cross-national comparative study of associational networks and gendered labor force participation in OECD countries. In: International Journal of Comparative Sociology, Jg. 64, H. 1, S. 22-56. DOI:10.1177/00207152221108139

Abstract

"This article explores the role of union-centered brokerage in promoting women’s labor force participation in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries for the last three decades. Using two measures of brokerage, a union’s core brokerage role, and its general brokerage role, we attempted to capture the processes by which union activists mobilize and extend women’s rights in associational fields. Then, we tested our key argument that union-centered brokerage plays the most effective role among the different brokerage types in channeling women’s interests by transforming them into wider class-linked or cross-class concerns. Cross-national and comparative case studies demonstrate that union-led brokerage promotes greater presence of women in the economy. Our findings revealed that, when controlling for economic, regional, and cultural factors, both types of brokerage roles impact women’s participation in the labor market and their participation compared to that of men. The overall findings underscore the importance of creating and utilizing solidarity structures through effective channeling mechanisms in civic associational fields between labor-based organizations and other reform-oriented civic groups in achieving egalitarian socioeconomic goals." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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OECD (2023): Reporting Gender Pay Gaps in OECD Countries. Guidance for Pay Transparency Implementation, Monitoring and Reform. (Gender Equality at Work), Paris, 203 S. DOI:10.1787/ea13aa68-en

Abstract

"Pay transparency policies are gaining momentum throughout the OECD. Over half of OECD countries require private sector firms to report their gender pay gap statistics regularly to stakeholders like employees, employee representatives, the government, and/or the public. Gender pay gap reporting, equal pay audits and other pay transparency policies help advance gender equality at the workplace, as these measures present up-to-date information on a firm’s gender pay gap, encourage employers to offer equal pay for work of equal value, and give individual workers and their representatives valuable insights to fight for pay equity. This report presents the most thorough stocktaking to date of gender pay gap reporting policies and evaluations across OECD countries, and offers guidance to countries interested in introducing, reforming and monitoring their pay transparency systems to promote equal pay for women and men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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OECD (2023): International Migration Outlook 2023. (International migration outlook 47), Paris, 403 S. DOI:10.1787/b0f40584-en

Abstract

"The 2023 edition of International Migration Outlook analyses recent developments in migration movements and the labour market inclusion of immigrants in OECD countries. It also monitors recent policy changes in migration governance and integration in OECD countries. This edition includes two special chapters on the labour market integration of migrant mothers and on fertility patterns among migrant populations in OECD countries. The Outlook also includes country notes and a detailed statistical annex." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ceballos, Martha, Annick Masselot & Richard Watt (2022): Pay Transparency across Countries and Legal Systems. In: CESifo forum, Jg. 23, H. 2, S. 3-11.

Abstract

"The article proceeds as follows. In the next section, we detail the legislative experiences of the different countries that are included in our data set. The third section employs latent class analysis to group the different countries in our data set according to their gender pay gap and their pay transparency legislation. The fourth section posits a new perspective on the gender pay gap of non-legislating countries that leads to a theory (and indeed a value, at least for the countries in our data set) of a “natural rate” of the gender pay gap and a useful separation between countries with pay transparency legislation in place – those that out-perform the benchmark of not legislating, and those that under-perform relative to that same benchmark. Together with our latent class analysis groupings, this allows us to draw conclusions regarding the types of pay transparency law that appear to be more successful in the endeavor of reducing the gender pay gap. Finally, the fifth section concludes." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense (2022): No activation without reconciliation? The interplay between ALMP and ECEC in relation to women employment unemployment and inactivity in 30 OECD countries 1985-2018. In: Social Policy and Administration, Jg. 56, H. 5, S. 808-826. DOI:10.1111/spol.12806

Abstract

"Comparative welfare state research as examined the outcomes of active labour market policies (ALMP) and work-family reconciliation policies by and large been separately. As a result, potential complementarities between these policy areas have received scant attention empirically. Using macro-level data, this study answers the question to what extent, and in which way, governments' efforts in ALMP and in early childhood education and care (ECEC) services are complementary to each other in promoting women's employment rates and reducing women's unemployment and inactivity rates in 30 OECD countries from 1985 to 2018. The article theorises about how the various policies that constitute a welfare state relate to each other, distinguishing between pluralism, complementarity and substitutability. These findings provide support for the notion of welfare pluralism, in the sense that ALMP and ECEC policies work together in improving women's employment rates in slightly different ways: ALMP achieve this through reducing women's unemployment rates, whereas ECEC also achieve lower inactivity rates for women. There was, however, more support for the notion of substitution rather than complementarity: the marginal benefits associated with an increase in either ALMP or ECEC were smaller in the context of large investments in the other policy. In other words, the highest rates of women's employment, and the lowest rates of unemployment and inactivity, are found in countries with large investments in both ALMP and ECEC, but such higher investments are associated with diminishing returns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense (2022): No activation without reconciliation? The interplay between ALMP and ECEC in relation to women employment unemployment and inactivity in 30 OECD countries 1985-2018. (Working papers / Institute for Evaluation of Labour Market and Education Policy 2022,04), Uppsala, 36 S.

Abstract

"Comparative welfare state research has mostly examined the outcomes of active labour market policies and work-family reconciliation policies separately. As a result, potential complementarities between these policy areas have received scant attention empirically. Using macro-level data, this study answers the question to what extent, and in which way, governments' efforts in active labour market policies (ALMP) and in early childhood education and care (ECEC) services are correlated with women's employment rates, women's unemployment and inactivity rates in 30 OECD countries from 1985 to 2018. The article theorizes about how the various policies that constitute a welfare state relate to each other, distinguishing between pluralism, complementarity and substitutability. I interpret the empirical findings as being consistent with welfare pluralism, in the sense that ALMP and ECEC policies work together in improving women's employment rates in slightly different ways: ALMP is associated with low female unemployment rates, whereas ECEC also is associated with lower inactivity rates for women. There was, however, more support for the notion of substitution rather than complementarity: the marginal benefits associated with an increase in either ALMP or ECEC were smaller in the context of large investments in the other policy. In other words, the highest rates of women's employment, and the lowest rates of unemployment and inactivity, are found in countries with large investments in both ALMP and ECEC, but such higher investments are associated with diminishing returns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Rebollo-Sanz, Yolanda F. & Sara De La Rica (2022): Gender gaps in skills and labor market outcomes: evidence from the PIAAC. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 20, H. 2, S. 333-371. DOI:10.1007/s11150-020-09523-w

Abstract

"Our paper makes the first attempt to address the empirical relationRicship between cognitive skills and gender gaps in labor market performance. We do so in a cross-country setting. To that end we use the PIAAC dataset, which contains information on OECD and non-OECD economies. Firstly, we document the existence of gender gaps in cognitive skills for numeracy, which are found to be around 2.5–4.6% and increase with age. These gaps remain even when comparing men and women within the same level and field of study. Next, we document sizable gender gaps in labor market outcomes, such as Labor Force Participation and hourly wages—around 18%, increase with age and rise remarkably for parents. Math skills are positively and strongly associated with these two labor market outcomes and its contribution to explain gender gaps, although significant, is limited—between 10 15% at most—in particular for parents." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Rendall, Michelle (2022): The Link between Gender Gaps and Employment Polarization. In: CESifo forum, Jg. 23, H. 2, S. 12-16.

Abstract

"The increase in employment shares both at the bottom and at the top of the skill distribution, combined with a decline in the middle, has been extensively documented for the US and many OECD economies since the 1980s. This observed employment polarization has become a well-known stylized fact. Less well known are the characteristics of employment polarization by gender, as polarization is usually studied at an aggregate level. Nonetheless, when studying employment polarization, in Cerina et al. (2021) we also consider one of the most important and dramatic social phenomena of the 20th century: the rise in female labor force participation, coupled with a rise in broad college attainment and a closing of the gender wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Silverberg, Laurie, Jutta Allmendinger, Michelle Boden, Frederic Jage-Bowler & Johanna Schleyer (Hrsg.) (2022): Gender Equality Advisory Council Report 2022: A shared vision for gender equality. Berlin, 108 S.

Abstract

"The 2022 GEAC Report describes the development of the G7 on the path to gender equality. Through both essays and data, it offers a clear picture of gender equality within the G7, highlights success stories, identifies areas for improvement, and provides evidence-based recommendations to the leaders of the G7. The first half of the report focuses on seven areas of action identified by the GEAC 2022; the second half offers a milestone in the work of the GEAC: the first-ever publication of the G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps. This yearʼs GEAC focused on seven themes: Funding; Ownership, Entrepreneurship, and Investment; The Care Economy; Feminist Diplomacy; Gender-based Violence; Gender and Crisis; and Intersectional Policy. Each of these themes is presented with a dedicated essay that includes data and best-practice models and concludes with a series of recommendations to the G7 leaders. Four of these themes are further elucidated in a more accessible comic-strip format." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Although men and women are typically taxed under the same rules, their different social and economic characteristics (e.g. income levels or labour force participation) mean that the tax system can inadvertently contribute to gender inequalities in society. Understanding and improving the impact of taxes on gender equality is a key dimension that governments need to consider as part of tax design to support inclusive growth. This report provides the first cross-country overview of governments' approaches to tax policy and gender, including reforms undertaken to date and potential areas of explicit and implicit gender bias. Covering 43 countries, it also explores the extent to which governments take into account gender implications in policy development, gender considerations in tax administration and compliance, and the availability and use of gender-disaggregated data. Finally, it also discusses priorities for further work on tax policy and gender issues." (Author's abstract, © 2022 OECD) ((en))

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Duval-Hernandez, Robert, Lei Fang & L. Rachel Ngai (2021): Taxes, Subsidies, and Gender Gaps in Hours and Wages. (Working papers / Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta 2021,17), Atlanta, Ga., 48 S. DOI:10.29338/wp2021-17

Abstract

"Using micro data from 17 countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, this paper documents a negative cross-country correlation between gender ratios in market hours and wages. We find that market hours by women and the size of the service sector that produces close substitutes to home production are important for the gender differences in market hours across countries. We quantify the role played by taxes and subsidies to family care on the two gender ratios in a multisector model with home production. Higher taxes and lower subsidies reduce the marketization of home production and therefore reduce market hours. The effect is larger for women because of their comparative advantage in producing home services and the corresponding market substitutes. The larger fall in female market hours drives up the female wage relative to the male wage, resulting in higher gender wage ratios." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Korinek, Jane, Evdokia Moïsé & Jakob Tange (2021): Trade and gender: A Framework of analysis. (OECD trade policy working papers 246), Paris, 87 S. DOI:10.1787/6db59d80-en

Abstract

"Closing gender gaps makes good economic sense. Advancing the aim of women's economic empowerment will require policy action across a wide range of areas, including increasing their participation in international trade. Although trade policies are not de jure discriminatory, they impact women and men differently due to dissimilar initial conditions. Mapping the channels and interactions between trade and gender for women as workers, consumers, and business owners shows that: (i) trade impacts women workers differently to men in part because they are employed in different sectors — in OECD countries, more often in services; (ii) trade lowers prices for consumers, which particularly increases the purchasing power of more vulnerable groups, where women are disproportionately represented; and (iii) higher trade costs impede smaller businesses' access to international markets more than large firms, which impacts women who tend to own and lead smaller businesses. A framework is proposed for analysing the impacts of trade and trade policies on women that policy makers can use in order to ensure that trade and trade policies in their country support women's economic empowerment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Li, Qi, Chris Knoester & Richard J. Petts (2021): Cross-national Attitudes about Paid Parental Leave Offerings for Fathers. (SocArXiv papers), 40 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/dxy24

Abstract

"Using cross-national data from the 2012 International Social Survey Programme (N = 33,273), this study considers institutional, self-interest, and ideational factors in analyzing public opinions about the provision, length, and source of paid parental leave offerings for fathers. We find substantial support for generous leave offerings. Multilevel regression results reveal that being a woman, supporting dual-earning expectations, and realizing more family strains lead to support for more generous leave offerings. Endorsing separate spheres and intensive mothering attitudes reduces support for more generous leave offerings; although, gendered attitudes interact with one another in predicting leave preferences, too. Finally, country-level indicators of female empowerment and father-specific leave offerings are positively associated with preferences for more generous leave offerings. Overall, public opinions about fathers’ leave offerings across OECD countries largely support policies that provide opportunities for more involved fathering, but preferences continue to be gendered and linked to family strains and country-level contexts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Mourelatos, Evangelos (2021): Hiring Discrimination in Labor Markets. An Experimental Study of Mood Regulation. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 956), Essen, 49 S.

Abstract

"We explore whether there is a link between mood and hiring decisions. This research examines how positive mood affects the discrimination faced my homosexual job candidates compared to heterosexuals. Our experimental design allows us to track the complete hiring process and monitor employers' behavior within and without our treatment context, in both online and offline labor market settings. Constructing pairs of curriculum vitae, distinguished, in each case, only by the sexual orientation or the gender of the applicants, led to the observation that females and gay men faced a significantly lower chance of getting hired regardless the labor market context. We also find that female employers propose higher levels of discrimination only for the case of female applicants. Our positive mood manipulation led to a depletion of discrimination levels, with the effects being more robust in the online labor context. Thus, there is substantial experimental evidence to suggest that discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender does exist also in online labor markets. Contributions to the hiring discrimination, mood research, and gig-economy literature are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Queisser, Monika (2021): COVID-19 and OECD Labour Markets: What Impact on Gender Gaps? In: Intereconomics, Jg. 56, H. 5, S. 249-253. DOI:10.1007/s10272-021-0993-6

Abstract

"Across the board statements on who suffers most are not helpful and may actually be a disservice to the fight for greater gender equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Abstract

"Women continue to earn less than men, in spite of major societal changes over decades and many labour market, educational and public policy initiatives that have targeted the gender wage gap. To address this persistent challenge, many governments are now mandating promising new pay transparency tools like employer pay gap reporting, equal pay audits, and gender-neutral job classification systems. These policies hold considerable allure. Pay transparency offers a relatively simple and intuitive way to identify and address gender wage gaps when they occur in a workplace. These policies can function well in publicising wage gaps and incentivising employers to address the inequalities they find – but only with the right policy design and implementation. This report presents the first stocktaking of pay transparency tools across OECD countries and explores how such policies can help level the playing field for women and men at work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ferragina, Emanuele (2020): Family policy and women's employment outcomes in 45 high-income countries. A systematic qualitative review of 238 comparative and national studies. In: Social Policy and Administration, Jg. 54, H. 7, S. 1016-1066. DOI:10.1111/spol.12584

Abstract

"The article reviews the available quantitative evidence on the relationship between explicit family policy and women's employment outcomes in 45 high-income countries between 1980 and 2016. At the methodological level, we gathered 238 papers through a four-stage systematic qualitative review. We included articles published in English in international journals or by leading research institutes. Despite the accrued importance of the field, comparative works and national case studies do not sufficiently engage one another for methodological and disciplinary reasons. Our contribution is to integrate the findings from both streams of the literature in two ways. First, we chart systematically the debate describing its evolution over four decades, the disciplines involved (demography, economics, politics, social policy, sociology, and interdisciplinary work), and the geographical and policy breadth of the empirical contributions. Second, we provide a rich guide for scholars in the field by exploring how national case studies fit (or not) the broad trends captured in comparative research and discussing key and controversial debates in the field. In conclusion, we point out also important gaps in the literature and propose new avenues for future research. An exhaustive set of tables provides information on each comparative and national case study and on the databases and variables employed in the literature." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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McNally, Sandra (2020): Gender Differences in Tertiary Education. What Explains STEM Participation? (CEP discussion paper 1721), London, 33 S.

Abstract

"The share of women achieving tertiary education has increased rapidly over time and now exceeds that of men in most OECD countries. However, women are severely under-represented in maths-intensive science fields, which are generally referred to as STEM (science, technology, engineering, and maths). The under-representation of women in these subject areas has received a great deal of attention. This is because these fields are seen to be especially important for productivity and economic growth and are associated with occupations that have higher earnings. Subject of degree is an important part of the explanation for the gender wage gap. The aim of this paper is to review evidence on explanations for the STEM gap in tertiary education. This starts with statistics about background context and evidence on how well-prepared male and female students may be for studying STEM at a later stage. I then discuss what the literature has to say about the role of personal attributes: namely confidence, self-efficacy and competitiveness and the role of preferences and expectations. I go on to discuss features of the educational context thought to be important for influencing attributes and preferences (or mediating their effects): peers; teachers; role models; and curriculum. I then briefly discuss broader cultural influences. I use the literature reviewed to discuss policy implications." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Wong, Elizabeth, Judy Jou, Amy Raub & Jody Heymann (2020): Comparing the availability of paid parental leave for same-sex and different-sex couples in 34 OECD countries. In: Journal of social policy, Jg. 49, H. 3, S. 525-545. DOI:10.1017/S0047279419000643

Abstract

"The availability of paid family leave has been widely researched in the context of a two-parent household with one mother and one father, yet few studies have explored whether households with same-sex parents have access to equal benefits. Expanding on previous cross-country comparisons of parental leave policies, this study examines parental leave policies in 34 OECD countries to compare the total duration of paid parental leave available to same-sex and different-sex parent families within a country. We find that same-sex female and different-sex couples receive equal durations of leave in the majority of countries. However, same-sex male couples often receive shorter durations of paid parental leave compared to both different-sex and same-sex female couples. In addition to addressing the implications of laws and policies surrounding same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption on parental leave availability, we highlight specific aspects of paid leave policies that may explain the unequal durations of paid leave between same-sex and different-sex couples." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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OECD (2020): Quality Early Childhood Education and Care for Children Under Age 3. Results from the Starting Strong Survey 2018. (TALIS), Paris, 120 S. DOI:10.1787/99f8bc95-en

Abstract

"The experience of children under age 3 with early childhood education and care (ECEC) is crucial for their learning, development and well-being and for parents’ return to work. Despite increasing recognition of the importance of ECEC for the youngest children, little is known about this sector. The OECD Starting Strong Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS Starting Strong) is the first international survey that focuses on the ECEC workforce. It asks staff and leaders about themselves and their settings, including the practices they use with children and their views on the sector. This thematic report focusses on ECEC for children under age 3, an option of the Survey in which four countries (Denmark, Germany, Israel and Norway) participated. The report answers many questions that are important for parents, actors in the field, and policy makers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brimblecombe, Simon & Shea McClanahan (2019): Improving gender outcomes in social security retirement systems. In: Social policy and administration, Jg. 53, H. 3, S. 327-342. DOI:10.1111/spol.12476

Abstract

"Assessing whether retirement systems meet their varying objectives requires analysing outcomes across different categories of beneficiaries with different working, financial, demographic, and family situations. Policymakers should therefore assess systems on the distribution of outcomes rather than average outcomes.
Much has been written about the gender inequalities inherent in labour markets and how these are reflected and reproduced in pension systems, and there is growing evidence that recent reforms have exacerbated these trends. Recent research has turned to the policy measures available to policymakers to forestall or reverse these trends, but this literature tends to overlook important administrative measures that have the potential to reduce inequalities in access that could improve pension outcomes for women within the current policy framework. This paper examines the main issues surrounding gender inequality in retirement outcomes; explores the implications of recent reform trends in light of the differential outcomes for women, including policy options to mitigate the negative impacts; and concludes with a review of key administrative measures, including streamlining affiliation procedures, improving information, and simplifying payment of contributions and receipt of benefits and better compliance of employers." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Crotti, Robert, Thierry Geiger, Vesselina Ratcheva & Saadia Zahidi (2019): The global gender gap report 2020. Insight report. (The global gender gap report), Cologny/Geneva, 370 S.

Abstract

"Gender parity is fundamental to whether and how economies and societies thrive. Ensuring the full development and appropriate deployment of half of the world’s total talent pool has a vast bearing on the growth, competitiveness and future-readiness of economies and businesses worldwide. The Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks 153 countries on their progress towards gender parity. In addition, this year’s edition studies gender gaps prospects in the professions of the future." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Oshio, Takashi (2019): Is a positive association between female employment and fertility still spurious in developed countries? In: Demographic Research, Jg. 41, S. 1277-1288. DOI:10.4054/DemRes.2019.41.45

Abstract

"Background: The cross-sectional association between female employment and fertility across developed countries turned from negative to positive during the mid-1980s. The conventional view is that the observed positive association is spurious owing to country-specific heterogeneity.
Objective: We revisit the validity of this view using recent data up to 2017 from 24 countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Methods: Based on the data downloaded from the OECD database, we estimate the time-series association between the female labor force participation rate (FLFP) and total fertility rate (TFR) by fixed-effects regression models, which can control for country-specific heterogeneity.
Results: The more recent the data set used, the more likely it is that the time-series correlation will be positive between FLFP and TFR, even after controlling for country-specific heterogeneity. We also observe that public spending on families, especially in the form of benefits in kind, starts increasing once FLFP becomes sufficiently high.
Conclusions: A positive correlation between female employment and fertility in developed countries is no longer attributable to country-specific heterogeneity. The results are supportive of the view that higher female employment can make socioinstitutional contexts more favorable for childbearing, leading to a positive association between FLFP and TFR.
Contribution: This study underscored the need for further investigation of the association between female employment and fertility, which is likely to have changed in recent decades." (Author's abstract, © Max-Planck-Institut für demographische Forschung) ((en))

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Day, Creina (2018): Inverse J effect of economic growth on fertility. A model of gender wages and maternal time substitution. In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 39, H. 4, S. 577-587. DOI:10.1007/s10834-018-9578-3

Abstract

"This paper presented a model where economic growth, via growth in female wages relative to male wages, encouraged households to raise paid female labor supply and have more children by substituting child care for maternal time. A threshold logarithm per capita output, above which fertility decline reverses, was predicted to depend on subsidized child care, maternity pay, and the value placed on children and maternal time spent rearing children. The predictions explained recent evidence and identified cross country differences in gender wages, family policy and willingness to substitute maternal time in childrearing as important factors in an inverse J-shaped effect of economic growth on fertility. The analysis was robust to the introduction of education and cost sharing among children in child rearing. Economies of scale in child rearing reduced the threshold logarithm of per capita output. Demand for child quality continued to rise with wages despite fertility decline reversal." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Gupta, Nabanita Datta (2018): Maternity leave versus early childcare - what are the long-term consequences for children? Despite increasingly generous parental leave schemes their advantages over subsidized childcare remain unclear. (IZA world of labor 438), Bonn, 11 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.438

Abstract

"Die Subvention formaler Kinderbetreuung leistet einen Beitrag zur Sicherung des Arbeitsangebots in alternden Gesellschaften und sorgt dafür, dass sich wichtige Fähigkeiten in den prägenden frühen Lebensjahren eines Kindes entwickeln. Entsprechende Investitionen führen zu langfristigen Bildungs- und Beschäftigungserträgen, die sich am deutlichsten bei Kindern aus schwächeren und mittleren sozioökonomischen Verhältnissen zeigen. Allerdings muss einer beeinträchtigten Entwicklung nicht-kognitiver Fähigkeiten durch zu lange externe Betreuung entgegengewirkt werden. Eine hohe Betreuungsqualität setzt breite gesellschaftliche Unterstützung voraus." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Kushi, Sidita & Ian P. McManus (2018): Gendered costs of austerity: the effects of the great recession and government policies on employment across the OECD. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 157, H. 4, S. 557-587. DOI:10.1111/ilr.12059

Abstract

"The global financial crisis prompted dramatic increases in unemployment and market instability in nearly every state. While the negative effects on national economies have been widespread, distributional outcomes have varied among different labor market groups, particularly between men and women. This article analyzes the gendered impact of the Great Recession on labor markets across the OECD, using random effects modeling of 28 countries across 14 years. We argue that although the start of the crisis afflicted male workers the most, the turn from stimulus toward fiscal austerity policies - including social spending and public employment cuts - exposed women to greater instability." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Zahidi, Saadia, Thierry Geiger & Robert Crotti (2018): The global gender gap report 2018. Insight report. (The global gender gap report), Cologny/Geneva, VIII, 355 S.

Abstract

"Gender parity is fundamental to whether and how economies and societies thrive. Ensuring the full development and appropriate deployment of half of the world's total talent pool has a vast bearing on the growth, competitiveness and future-readiness of economies and businesses worldwide. The Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks 149 countries on their progress towards gender parity across four thematic dimensions: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment. In addition, this year's edition studies skills gender gaps related to Artificial Intelligence (AI)." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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OECD (2018): Taxing wages 2016-2017. Special feature: Differences in the disposable incomes of households with and without children. (Taxing wages / OECD 2016-2017), Paris, 592 S. DOI:10.1787/tax_wages-2018-en

Abstract

"This annual flagship publication provides details of taxes paid on wages in OECD countries. It covers personal income taxes and social security contributions paid by employees, social security contributions and payroll taxes paid by employers, and cash benefits received by in-work families. It illustrates how these taxes and benefits are calculated in each member country and examines how they impact household incomes. The results also enable quantitative cross-country comparisons of labour cost levels and the overall tax and benefit position of single persons and families on different levels of earnings. The publication shows average and marginal effective tax rates on labour costs for eight different household types, which vary by income level and household composition (single persons, single parents, one or two earner couples with or without children). The average tax rates measure the part of gross wage earnings or labour costs taken in tax and social security contributions, both before and after cash benefits, and the marginal tax rates the part of a small increase of gross earnings or labour costs that is paid in these levies.
Taxing Wages 2018 includes a special feature entitled: 'Differences in the Disposable Incomes of Households with and without Children'." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, commonly known as the Nordic countries, have been leaders in the development of modern family and gender policy, and the explicit promotion of gender equality at home, at work, and in public life. Today, on many measures, they boast some of the most gender-equal labour markets in the OECD.
This report shows that improvements in gender equality have contributed considerably to economic growth in the Nordic countries. Increases in female employment alone are estimated to account for anywhere between roughly 0.05 and 0.40 percentage points to average annual GDP per capita growth - equivalent to 3 to 20% of total GDP per capita growth over the past 50 years or so, depending on the country.
The Nordic countries are closer than most to achieving gender equality in the labour market. But the last mile may well prove to be the longest one. To make further progress, a continued assessment of the effectiveness of existing public policies and workplace practices is needed. Only with resolve and a continued focus can Nordic countries ensure that men and women contribute to their economies and societies in gender equal measure." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"While digital technologies offer leapfrog opportunities and help empower women, gender-based digital exclusion remains widespread and has many causes. The report Bridging the Digital Divide: Include, Upskill, Innovate is an effort by the OECD, working with the G20, that aims to provide policy directions for consideration by all governments. It analyses a range of drivers at the root of the digital gender divide in order to draw attention to critical areas for policy action." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brewer, Mike & Sahra Cattan (2017): Universal pre-school and labor supply of mothers. In: ifo DICE report, Jg. 15, H. 2, S. 8-12.

Abstract

Der Ausbau der Vorschulerziehung wurde in den letzten 30 Jahren in vielen Ländern vorangetrieben. Hiermit sollte die kindliche Entwicklung gefördert, soziale Unterschiede ausgeglichen und die Beschäftigung von Müttern gesteigert werden. Der Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über die empirische Literatur zum Zusammenhang von Vorschulerziehung und der Erwerbsbeteiligung von Müttern in OECD-Staaten. Es zeigt sich, dass das Angebot einer subventionierten Vorschulbildung in den untersuchten Ländern sehr unterschiedliche Auswirkungen auf die Erwerbsbeteiligung hat. So kam es in einigen Ländern, wie Spanien, Argentinien und Kanada zur erheblichen Steigerungen der Müttererwerbstätigkeit, während es in den USA und einigen nordischen Ländern nahezu keinen Einfluss hatte. (IAB)

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Elveren, Adem Y., Christa Marr & Yvonne Renard (2017): Feminization of labour and profit rates. Evidence from OECD countries. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 24, H. 7, S. 481-484. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2016.1203057

Abstract

"The article examines the effect of the feminization of labour on profit rates and capacity utilization by employing an indirect and two-stage least squares models for 21 OECD countries during the 1970 - 2008 period. Findings show that higher women's labour force participation rates and gender wage gap lead to higher profit rates." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kauhanen, Antti (2017): Gender differences in corporate hierarchies. How and why do the careers of men and women differ? What policies could reduce the differences? (IZA world of labor 358), Bonn, 11 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.358

Abstract

"The gender wage gap is largely due to men and women holding different kinds of jobs. This job segregation is partly driven by gender differences in careers in corporate hierarchies. Research has shown that the careers of men and women begin to diverge immediately upon entry into the labor market and that subsequent career progress exacerbates the divergence. This divergence of career progress explains a large part of the gender wage gap. Understanding how and why the careers of men and women differ is necessary to design effective policies that can reduce the gender differences in hierarchies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Khan, Haroon Ur Rashid, Anwar Khan, Khalid Zaman, Agha Amad Nabi, Sanil S. Hishan & Talat Islam (2017): Gender discrimination in education, health, and labour market. A voice for equality. In: Quality & quantity, Jg. 51, H. 5, S. 2245-2266. DOI:10.1007/s11135-016-0384-4

Abstract

"The objective of the study is to examine the impact of gender discrimination in education, health, and labour market on economic growth in a panel of 20 high-income OECD countries for the period of 1980 - 2015. In addition, the study proposed an index of pro-equality growth, which is flared with education, health, and labour market initiatives to promote economic growth. The results show that gender parity index for educational attainment significantly promotes economic growth while health and labour market required substantial policy reforms to reduce health and labour market inequalities to sustain long-term economic growth. The results classified three countries as highly equitable growth, one country for equitable growth, two countries are moderate growth, four countries are less equitable growth while remaining 10 countries fall in the category of inequitable growth, where greater inequality promotes economic growth on the cost of education, health, and labour market inequalities." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Kleven, Henrik & Camille Landais (2017): Gender inequality and economic development. Fertility, education and norms. In: Economica, Jg. 84, H. 334, S. 180-209. DOI:10.1111/ecca.12230

Abstract

"We document the evolution of gender inequality in labour market outcomes -- earnings, labour supply and wage rates -- over the path of economic development, and present evidence on the potential reasons for this evolution. To this end, we have created a micro database that compiles 248 surveys from 53 countries between 1967 and 2014, covering a wide range of per capita income levels. There is large convergence in the earnings of men and women over the path of development, driven by female labour force participation and wage rates. We argue that the single most important factor behind this convergence is demographic transition: the effects of children on gender gaps ('child penalties') are large at both low and high levels of development, but fertility declines drastically over the growth process and thus reduces the aggregate implications of children. We also document gender convergence in educational attainment and consider its effects on earnings inequality, arguing that these are significant but less dramatic than the effects of fertility. Finally, we document striking changes in the values or norms surrounding the role of women with children, implying that such changes could serve as a reinforcing mechanism for gender convergence." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Kunze, Astrid (2017): The gender wage gap in developed countries. (IZA discussion paper 10826), Bonn, 40 S.

Abstract

"Despite the increased attachment of women to the labour force in nearly all developed countries, a stubborn gender pay gap remains. This chapter provides a review of the economics literature on the gender wage gap, with an emphasis on developed countries. We begin with an overview of the trends in the gender differences in wages and employment rates. We then review methods used to decompose the gender wage gap and the results from such decompositions. We discuss how trends and differences in the gender wage gap across countries can be understood in light of non-random selection and human capital differences. We then review the evidence on demand-side factors used to explain the existing gender wage gap and then discuss occupational segregation. The chapter concludes with suggestions for further research." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense, Ariana Need & Henk Van der Kolk (2017): Is there such a thing as too long childcare leave? In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 37, H. 1/2, S. 2-15. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-07-2015-0074

Abstract

"Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to revisit the question whether women's employment is negatively affected in countries with very long periods of childcare leave.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors analyzed data on 192,484 individual women, 305 country-years, and 18-countries, combined with country-level data on childcare, unemployment and service sector size.
Findings
The authors found that in countries with short periods of childcare leave the motherhood-employment gap is smaller than in countries with no childcare leave, while in countries with long periods of childcare leave the motherhood-employment gap is bigger than with short periods of leave.
Originality/value
The authors argued that to correctly answer the long-leave question - the relationship between duration of leave and employment of women should be explicitly hypothesized as being curvilinear; and childcare leave should be expected to affect only mothers, not women without children; testing the long-leave hypothesis requires the use of country-comparative data in which countries are observed repeatedly over time; and is best tested against person-level data." (Author's abstract, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Olivetti, Claudia & Barbara Petrongolo (2017): The economic consequences of family policies. Lessons from a century of legislation in high-income countries. In: The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Jg. 31, H. 1, S. 205-230. DOI:10.1257/jep.31.1.205

Abstract

"By the early 21st century, most high-income countries have put into effect a host of generous and virtually gender-neutral parental leave policies and family benefits, with the multiple goals of gender equity, higher fertility, and child development. What have been the effects? Proponents typically emphasize the contribution of family policies to the goals of gender equity and child development, enabling women to combine careers and motherhood, and altering social norms regarding gender roles. Opponents often warn that family policies may become a long-term hindrance to women's careers because of the loss of work experience and the higher costs to employers that hire women of childbearing age. We draw lessons from existing work and our own analysis on the effects of parental leave and other interventions aimed at aiding families. We present country- and micro-level evidence on the effects of family policy on gender outcomes, focusing on female employment, gender gaps in earnings, and fertility. Most estimates range from negligible to a small positive impact. But the verdict is far more positive for the beneficial impact of spending on early education and childcare." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Pocock, Barbara & Sara Charlesworth (2017): Multilevel work-family interventions. Creating good-quality employment over the life course. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 44, H. 1, S. 23-46. DOI:10.1177/0730888415619218

Abstract

"Poor-quality jobs have significant costs for individual workers, their families, and the wider community. Drawing mainly on the Australian case, the authors' focus is on the structural challenges to work - life reconciliation and the multiple-level interventions necessary to create quality employment that supports workers to reconcile work and family over the life course. The authors argue that interventions are necessary in three domains: at the macrosocial and economic level, in the regulatory domain, and in the workplace domain. The nature and success of these interventions is also critical to gender equality and to responding to the changing gender and care composition of the workforce across OECD countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Schwab, Klaus, Richard Samans, Saadia Zahidi, Till Alexander Leopold, Vesselina Ratcheva, Ricardo Hausmann & Laura D¿Andrea Tyson (2017): The global gender gap report 2017. Insight report. (The global gender gap report), Cologny/Geneva, 349 S.

Abstract

"Gender parity is fundamental to whether and how economies and societies thrive. Ensuring the full development and appropriate deployment of half of the world's total talent pool has a vast bearing on the growth, competitiveness and future-readiness of economies and businesses worldwide. The Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks 144 countries on their progress towards gender parity across four thematic dimensions: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment. In addition, this year's edition also analyses the dynamics of gender gaps across industry talent pools and occupations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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International Labour Office (2017): World employment and social outlook. Trends for women 2017. (World employment and social outlook. Trends), Genf, 63 S.

Abstract

"This report examines the global and regional labour market trends and gaps, including in labour force participation rates, unemployment rates, employment status as well as sectoral and occupational segregation. It also presents a global in-depth analysis of the key drivers of female labour force participation by investigating the personal preferences of women and the societal gender norms and socio-economic constraints that women face.
A key finding of this report is that closing these labour market gaps would yield significant economic benefits in terms of GDP growth while at the same time improving individual welfare in multiple dimensions. However, the report finds that there are significant socio-economic and gender norm constraints influencing a woman's decision to participate. Accordingly, the report introduces a comprehensive framework to address the drivers of these gender gaps and outlines a series of policy recommendations to improve the labour market outcomes of women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Blau, Francine D., Gielen, Anne C. & Klaus F. Zimmermann (Hrsg.) (2016): Gender, inequality, and wages. (IZA Prize in labor economics), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 545 S.

Abstract

"In all Western societies women earn lower wages on average than men.
The gender wage gap has existed for many years, although there have been some important changes over time. This volume of collected papers contains extensive research on progress made by women in the labor market, and the characteristics and causes of remaining gender inequalities. It also covers other dimensions of gender inequality, such as family formation, wellbeing, and other dimensions of inequality, including by race and immigrant status, and their interplay with gender. The author was awarded the 2010 IZA Prize in Labor Economics for this research.
The book probes and quantifies the explanations for the gender wage gap, including differential choices made in the labor market by men and women, as well as labor market discrimination and employment segregation. It also delineates how the gender wage gap has decreased over time in the United States and suggests explanations for this narrowing of the gap, and the more recent slowdown in wage convergence. The volume also investigates international differences in the gender wage gap, and wage inequality and explains the link between the two. Moving on to consider a variety of indicators of gender inequality, it paints a picture of significant gains in women's relative status in the United States across a number of dimensions. It analyses the trends in female labor supply and what they indicate about changing gender roles in the United States, and considers a successful intervention designed to increase the relative success of academic women. Furthermore the book focuses on inequality by race and immigrant status, examining not only race differences in wages and the even larger race differences in wealth, but also immigrant source countries on immigrant women's labor market assimilation. In sum the book underscores the high relevance of research on gender inequalities in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Budig, Michelle J., Joya Misra & Irene Boeckmann (2016): Work - family policy trade-offs for mothers? Unpacking the cross-national variation in motherhood earnings penalties. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 43, H. 2, S. 119-177. DOI:10.1177/0730888415615385

Abstract

"Recent scholarship suggests welfare state interventions, as measured by policy indices, create gendered trade-offs wherein reduced work - family conflict corresponds to greater gender wage inequality. The authors reconsider these trade-offs by unpacking these indices and examining specific policy relationships with motherhood-based wage inequality to consider how different policies have different effects. Using original policy data and Luxembourg Income Study microdata, multilevel models across 22 countries examine the relationships among country-level family policies, tax policies, and the motherhood wage penalty. The authors find policies that maintain maternal labor market attachment through moderate-length leaves, publicly funded childcare, lower marginal tax rates on second earners, and paternity leave are correlated with smaller motherhood wage penalties." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cuberes, David & Marc Teignier (2016): Aggregate effects of gender gaps in the labor market. A quantitative estimate. In: Journal of Human Capital, Jg. 10, H. 1, S. 1-32.

Abstract

"This paper examines the quantitative effects of gender gaps in entrepreneurship and workforce participation. We simulate an occupational choice model with heterogeneous agents in entrepreneurial ability. Gender gaps in entrepreneurship affect negatively both income and aggregate productivity, since they reduce the entrepreneurs' average talent. Specifically, the expected income loss from excluding 5 percent of women is 2.5 percent, while the loss is 10 percent if they are all employers. We find that gender gaps cause an average income loss of 15 percent in the OECD, 40 percent of which is due to entrepreneurship gaps. Extending the model to developing countries, we obtain substantially higher losses, with significant variation across regions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kanninen, Ohto & Aleksi Karhula (2016): Changes in income at macro level predict sex ratio at birth in OECD countries. In: PLoS one, Jg. 11, H. 7, S. 1-8. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0158943

Abstract

"The human sex ratio at birth (SRB) is approximately 107 boys for every 100 girls. SRB was rising until the World War II and has been declining slightly after the 1950s in several industrial countries. Recent studies have shown that SRB varies according to exposure to disasters and socioeconomic conditions. However, it remains unknown whether changes in SRB can be explained by observable macro-level socioeconomic variables across multiple years and countries. Here we show that changes in disposable income at the macro level positively predict SRB in OECD countries. A one standard deviation increase in the change of disposable income is associated with an increase of 1.03 male births per 1000 female births. The relationship is possibly nonlinear and driven by extreme changes. The association varies from country to country being particular strong in Estonia. This is the first evidence to show that economic and social conditions are connected to SRB across countries at the macro level. This calls for further research on the effects of societal conditions on general characteristics at birth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))