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International Labour Office (2015): Global wage report 2014/15. Wage and income inequality. (Global wage report 04), Genf, 114 S.

Abstract

"The Global Wage Report analyses the evolution of real wages around the world, giving a unique picture of wage trends and relative purchasing power globally and by region. The 2014/15 edition examines the link between wages and inequality at the household level. It shows that wages constitute the largest single source of income for households with at least one member of working age in most countries and points to changes in wages and paid employment as key factors underlying recent trends in inequality. The report also considers wage gaps between certain groups, such as those between women and men, migrants and nationals, and workers in the informal and formal economy. Inequality can be addressed through policies that affect wage distribution directly or indirectly, as well as through fiscal redistribution. However, increasing inequality in the labour market places a heavier burden on efforts to reduce inequality through taxes and transfers. The report thus emphasizes the need for combined policy action that includes minimum wages, strengthened collective bargaining, interventions to eliminate wage gaps, the promotion of paid employment and redistribution through taxes and transfers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Europäische Kommission. Generaldirektion Justiz und Verbraucher (2015): Report on equality between women and men 2014. (Report on equality between women and men), Brüssel, 60 S.

Abstract

"The Report on equality between women and men 2014 presents the latest figures illustrating the most recent developments. The report presents key EU actions on gender equality, which combine legislation, policy measures and funding. It includes projects at national and grass-roots level, highlighting the joint efforts by the EU and its Member States. In line with its obligations under the treaties, the EU promotes gender equality in all its activities, from education to work, from research to external policy." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Aumayr-Pintar, Christine, Jorge Cabrita, Enrique Fernández-Macías & Carlos Vacas-Soriano (2014): Pay in Europe in the 21st century. Dublin, 173 S. DOI:10.2806/49345

Abstract

"The issue of wages has attracted particular attention at European level since the onset of the economic crisis. Changes in economic governance, notably within the European semester, have prompted discussions on wage-setting mechanisms. While, overall, wage-bargaining regimes have remained relatively stable over time in many countries, the most substantial changes were seen in Member States facing more difficult economic circumstances. This report provides comparative time series on wage-bargaining outcomes across the EU Member States and Norway, discussing pay developments against the background of different wage-bargaining regimes and looks into the link between pay and productivity developments. It also investigates the different systems and levels of minimum wages in Europe at present, carrying out an accounting exercise through a hypothetical scenario of a minimum wage set at 60% of the median national wage (with some alternative scenarios as well for comparison) in order to benchmark and evaluate minimum wage levels and systems in Europe, and to discuss the possibilities and difficulties of coordination in this matter." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Borck, Rainald (2014): Adieu Rabenmutter: culture, fertility, female labour supply, the gender wage gap and childcare. In: Journal of population economics, Jg. 27, H. 3, S. 739-765. DOI:10.1007/s00148-013-0499-z

Abstract

"This paper studies the effect of cultural attitudes on childcare provision, fertility, female labour supply and the gender wage gap. Cross-country data show that fertility, female labour force participation and childcare provision are positively correlated with each other, while the gender wage gap seems to be negatively correlated with these variables. The paper presents a model with endogenous fertility, female labour supply and childcare choices driven by cultural attitudes which fit these facts. There may exist multiple equilibria: one with zero childcare provision, low fertility and female labour supply and high wage gap and one with high childcare provision, high fertility and female labour supply and low wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Burchell, Brendan, Vincent Hardy, Jill Rubery & Mark Smith (2014): A new method to understand occupational gender segregation in European labour markets. Brüssel, 161 S. DOI:10.2838/748887

Abstract

"Dieser Bericht stellt eine neue Art der Darstellung von Geschlechtersegregation nach Berufen vor. Die Untersuchungen zeigen, dass die Art des Berufes eine wichtig Rolle spielt, unabhängig davon, ob der Beruf männer- oder frauendominiert oder gemischt ist, ob es sich um Arbeiter oder Angestellte handelt. In diesem Bericht zeigen wir, dass nicht nur das Geschlecht der Arbeitnehmer sondern auch die 'Gender'eigenschaften des Berufes selbst - männerdominiert, frauendominiert oder gemischt - zu verschiedenen beruflichen Erfahrungen beitragen können." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Castellano, Rosalia & Antonella Rocca (2014): Gender gap and labour market participation. A composite indicator for the ranking of European countries. In: International journal of manpower, Jg. 35, H. 3, S. 345-367. DOI:10.1108/IJM-07-2012-0107

Abstract

"The measurement and comparison across countries of female conditions in labour market and gender gap in employment is a very complex task, given both its multidimensional nature and the different scenarios in terms of economic, social and cultural characteristics. The paper aims to discuss these issues. At this aim, different information about presence and engagement of women in labour market, gender pay gap, segregation, discrimination and human capital characteristics was combined and a ranking of 26 European countries is proposed through the composite indicator methodology. It satisfies the need to benchmark national gender gaps, grouping together economic, political and educational dimensions. The results show that female conditions in labour market are the best in Scandinavian countries and Ireland while many Eastern and Southern European countries result at the bottom of classification." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cipollone, Angela, Eleonora Patacchini & Giovanna Vallanti (2014): Female labour market participation in Europe. Novel evidence on trends and shaping factors. In: IZA journal of European Labor Studies, Jg. 3, S. 1-40. DOI:10.1186/2193-9012-3-18

Abstract

"We investigate the changes in women's participation patterns across 15 EU countries over the last 20 years using individual data from ECHP and EUSILC databases. Our findings show that the observed trends in female participation differ substantially both across countries and across different groups of women. We explore such heterogeneity in trends by looking at the effects of policies and labour market institutional factors on the participation of women with different family and individual characteristics. Our estimates reveal a role of policies and institutions that is stronger than what has so far been assessed. Labour market institutions and family-oriented policies explain almost 25% of the actual increase in labour force participation for young women, and more than 30% for highly educated women. Surprisingly, changes in the institutional and policy settings contribute less in explaining the participation of low-skilled women. We also find that reforming the institutional framework towards a model of 'flexicure' labour market is effective in enhancing women labour supply only when deregulation is accompanied by sufficient social compensation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hill, E. Jeffrey, Jenet J. Erickson, Kaylene J. Fellows, Giuseppe Martinengo & Sarah M. Allen (2014): Work and family over the life course. Do older workers differ? In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 35, H. 1, S. 1-13. DOI:10.1007/s10834-012-9346-8

Abstract

"This study explored how older workers (age 55+) differed from middle-aged (ages 35 - 54) and young workers (<35 years) in their experience of the work - family interface. Data came from a subset of a survey conducted by a multi-national corporation in 79 countries (N = 41,813, n = 2,700). Older workers reported significantly less work-to-family and family-to-work conflict and greater work - family fit, life success, and work success than middle-aged and young workers. They reported significantly greater job flexibility and job satisfaction but were significantly less likely to be aware of and use work - family programs than young workers. Older men reported significantly less awareness and use of work-life programs and less family-to-work conflict than older women. Implications of this research are presented." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Quintini, Glenda (2014): Skills at work. How skills and their use matter in the labour market. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 158), Paris, 62 S. DOI:10.1787/5jz44fdfjm7j-en

Abstract

"Human capital is the key for economic growth. Not only is it linked to aggregate economic performance but also to each individual's labour market outcomes. However, a skilled population is not enough to achieve high and inclusive growth, as skills need to be put into productive use at work. Thanks to the availability of measures of both the proficiency and the use of numerous types of skills, the Survey of Adult Skills offers a unique opportunity to advance knowledge in this area and this paper presents and discusses evidence on both these dimensions with a particular focus on their implications for labour market policy. This paper explores the role played in the labour market by skill proficiency in the areas of literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments. It also shows how skills use, not only proficiency, affects a number of key labour market phenomena, such as the gender wage gap. Finally, the paper combines information on skill proficiency, educational attainment, skill use and qualification requirements to construct indicators of qualification and skills mismatch and to explore their causes and consequences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Raz-Yurovich, Liat (2014): A transaction cost approach to outsourcing by households. In: Population and Development Review, Jg. 40, H. 2, S. 293-309. DOI:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2014.00674.x

Abstract

"Below-replacement fertility and late marriage reflect, in part, the incompatibility of women's family and paid work roles. The outsourcing of childcare and housework to market and state service providers offers a strategy for reconciling work - family conflicts. By referring to the household as an organizational unit, I use the transaction cost approach (TCA) of organizational economics to discuss the factors that facilitate or impede outsourcing by households. In my analysis the frequency, specificity, and uncertainty level of the transaction, as well as normative and social beliefs, can facilitate or impede the household's decision to outsource. Monetary considerations, preferences, and government policies might moderate the effect of the transaction cost on this decision. The analysis further demonstrates that gender is an important factor, because transaction costs are often not distributed equally within households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Salladarré, Frédéric & Stephane Hlaimi (2014): Women and part-time work in Europe. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 153, H. 2, S. 293-310. DOI:10.1111/j.1564-913X.2014.00205.x

Abstract

"This article examines female part-time employment in 23 European countries, distinguishing between 'short' and 'long' part-time employment. The short form, defined as less than 20 hours per week, is associated with the youngest and oldest age groups, slight disability, a higher number of children, lower skill levels, and employment in community, social and personal services. Although the incidence of part-time employment varies considerably across countries, long part-time employment is generally more widespread than short part-time employment, albeit with matching cross-country variations in the incidence of the two types. This suggests that they are complementary, rather than substitutes for one another." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sparreboom, Theo (2014): Gender equality, part-time work and segregation in Europe. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 150, H. 2, S. 245-268. DOI:10.1111/j.1564-913X.2014.00204.x

Abstract

"This article shows how both segregation by sex and segregation by hours shape the occupational space of part-time workers. The level of segregation by sex varies according to the shares of full-time and part-time work in total employment, and the trade-off between increasing the volume of female employment and decreasing segregation by sex is much stronger for full-time work. The author argues that there is less segregation by sex in part-time work than in full-time work; it is the gap between the volume of male and female part-time employment that determines the effect of part-time work an segregation in total employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sándor, Eszter, Daphne Ahrendt & Rachel Kuenzi (2014): Third European quality of life survey. Quality of life in Europe: Families in the economic crisis. Dublin, 76 S. DOI:10.2806/49619

Abstract

"The economic crisis has reshaped the lives of millions of European citizens. But how has it affected families with children? Children are more at risk of poverty or social exclusion than the overall population in a large majority of EU countries; hence, it is important to understand how the crisis has affected the households in which these children grow up. This report describes the changing quality of life across the EU for different types of families with children and compares their living standards and social situation. Grouping the EU Member States into four categories on the basis of the flexibility or otherwise of their family policies, it also examines potential patterns that may be related to different family policy approaches. Themes that emerge from the findings include the particular challenges facing lone parents, the greater difficulties facing jobless families since the onset of the crisis, and the increasing extent of conflict parents experience in seeking to balance their work and family lives." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ahrendt, Daphne, Robert Anderson, Jean-Marie Jungblut, Daniel Molinuevo, Eszter Sándor, Adi Buxbaum & Sybille Pirklbauer (2013): Caring for children and dependants. Effect on careers of young workers. Dublin, 11 S.

Abstract

"This background paper aims to give an overview of the effects that the lack of childcare and care facilities for other dependants has on the career choices and situation of young men and women in the labour market, with a particular focus on the effects of the crisis on the accessibility of those services. The paper was prepared on request from the European Parliament for expert input on the effects of caring for children and other dependants on the employability of young men and women. It includes an analysis of the data from Eurofound's third European Quality of Life Survey of 2011 (EQLS), the 2013 European Labour Force Survey (LFS) and the 2011 Eurobarometer survey." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Anxo, Dominique, Christine Franz & Angelika Kümmerling (2013): Working time and work-life balance in a life course perspective. A report based on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey. Dublin, 72 S.

Abstract

"Understanding how working time is organised and how this is impacting on balance of work versus private life is of fundamental importance. This general statement is very much in accordance with the main objective of the Europe 2020 employment strategy, stating that at least 75% of the population aged 20 - 64 should be employed by 2020, necessitating in many Member States a significant increase in women's labour market participation. Drawing on data from Eurofound's fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), based on interviews with more than 38,000 respondents in 34 countries, this report documents the prevailing working time patterns of employees, the self-employed and lone parents across five country clusters. It also analyses the relationship between paid employment and domestic activities, work - life balance and working time preferences across the life course." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bettio, Francesca, Platon Tinios & Gianni Betti (2013): The gender gap in pensions in the EU. Brüssel, 136 S. DOI:10.2838/43810

Abstract

"Renten sind ein wichtiger Bestimmungsfaktor der wirtschaftlichen Unabhängigkeit ihrer Empfänger. Wenn man die wirtschaftliche Unabhängigkeit von Personen im erwerbsfähigen Alter betrachtet, denkt man unwillkürlich an geschlechtsspezifische Lohngefälle. Die Auseinandersetzung mit geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnunterschieden müsste eigentlich auch zu einer besonderen Aufmerksamkeit auf Einkommensgefälle bei Renten führen. Diese Gefälle müssten die kumulierten Nachteile einer beruflichen Laufbahn in Arbeitsmärkten wiederspiegeln, in denen die Bedingungen für Frauen und Männer ungleich sind. Das gilt umso mehr für ältere Kohorten. Rentensysteme reflektieren diese Unterschiede nicht eins zu eins, sondern können sie durch die Belohnung von Sparsamkeit verstärken oder infolge entsprechender sozialpolitischer Entscheidungen abfedern." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Bárcena-Martín, Elena & Ana I. Moro-Egido (2013): Gender and poverty risk in Europe. In: Feminist economics, Jg. 19, H. 2, S. 69-99. DOI:10.1080/13545701.2013.771815

Abstract

"This study advances research on the structural dimension in the predominantly individual-oriented field of poverty studies by evaluating to what extent cross-national differences in population and structural characteristics can explain the differences in poverty outcomes by gender. To facilitate an approach that integrates individual and structural context dimensions, the paper takes advantage of multilevel techniques to test gender differences in the risk of being poor, entering into poverty, and exiting from poverty among seventeen European countries. The analysis covers single-adult households, drawing on data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EUSILC) for the years 2007-8. The study concludes that structural effects, such as welfare state policies, labor market characteristics, level of inequality, and the level of women's empowerment in the country, seem to be more relevant than individual effects in explaining differences in the gender poverty gap among countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Christofides, Louis N., Alexandros Polycarpou & Konstantinos Vrachimis (2013): Gender wage gaps, 'sticky floors' and 'glass ceilings' in Europe. In: Labour economics, Jg. 21, H. April, S. 86-102. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2013.01.003

Abstract

"We consider and attempt to understand the gender wage gap across 26 European countries, using 2007 data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions. The size of the gender wage gap varies considerably across countries, definitions of the gap, and selection-correction mechanisms. Most of the gap cannot be explained by the characteristics available in this data set. Quantile regressions show that, in a number of countries, the wage gap is wider at the top ('glass ceilings') and/or at the bottom of the wage distribution ('sticky floors'). We find larger mean/median gender gaps and more evidence of glass ceilings for full-time full-year employees, suggesting more female disadvantage in 'better' jobs. These features may be related to country-specific policies that cannot be evaluated at the individual-country level, at a point in time. We use the cross-country variation in the unexplained wage gaps of this larger-than-usual sample of states to explore the influence of (i) country policies that reconcile work and family life and (ii) their wage-setting institutions. We find that country policies and institutions are related to features of their unexplained gender wage gaps in systematic, quantitatively important, ways." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cipollone, Angela, Eleonora Patacchini & Giovanna Vallanti (2013): Women labor market participation in Europe. Novel evidence on trends and shaping factors. (IZA discussion paper 7710), Bonn, 50 S.

Abstract

"We investigate the changes in women's participation patterns across 15 EU countries over the last 20 years using individual data from ECHP and EUSILC databases. Our findings reveal a role of social policies and institutional factors that is stronger than what has so far been assessed. Labor market reforms explain almost 25% of the actual increase in labor force participation for young women, and more than 30% for highly educated women. The effects of labor market reforms on the participation of low skilled women in the labor force are instead surprisingly small. We also find that reforms of the institutional framework towards a model of flexicure labor market are effective in enhancing women labor supply only when deregulation is accompanied by sufficient social compensation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Corak, Miles (2013): Income inequality, equality of opportunity, and intergenerational mobility. In: The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Jg. 27, H. 3, S. 79-102. DOI:10.1257/jep.27.3.79

Abstract

"My focus is on the degree to which increasing inequality in the high-income countries, particularly in the United States, is likely to limit economic mobility for the next generation of young adults. I discuss the underlying drivers of opportunity that generate the relationship between inequality and intergenerational mobility. The goal is to explain why America differs from other countries, how intergenerational mobility will change in an era of higher inequality, and how the process is different for the top 1 percent. I begin by presenting evidence that countries with more inequality at one point in time also experience less earnings mobility across the generations, a relationship that has been called 'The Great Gatsby Curve.' The interaction between families, labor markets, and public policies all structure a child's opportunities and determine the extent to which adult earnings are related to family background -- but they do so in different ways across national contexts. Both cross-country comparisons and the underlying trends suggest that these drivers are all configured most likely to lower, or at least not raise, the degree of intergenerational earnings mobility for the next generation of Americans coming of age in a more polarized labor market. This trend will likely continue unless there are changes in public policy that promote the human capital of children in a way that offers relatively greater benefits to the relatively disadvantaged." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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El-Attar, Mayssun (2013): Trust, child care technology choice and female labor force participation. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 11, H. 4, S. 507-544. DOI:10.1007/s11150-013-9202-0

Abstract

"In this paper we investigate whether trust has an effect on the choice of child care technology and on female labor force participation. Mothers with less trust in others may decide to stay at home with their child instead of working. To do this, we sketch a simple model to show why this effect may be taking place, we measure trust using the European Social Survey and we test its influence on the choice of child care technology. To measure trust, we use the methodology proposed by Spady (Semiparametric methods for the measurement of latent attitudes and the estimation of their behavioural consequences. To measure trust, we use a recent semiparametric item response model. Compared to other measures of trust, using this technique has several advantages: it allows the aggregation of information from several questions and exploits additional information from personal and demographic characteristics. It also imposes very few parametric assumptions. The results show that trust matters for the degree of externalness of the child care technology people choose. It can therefore be a possible explanation for differences in female labor force participation across countries and across sociological groups." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Elborgh-Woytek, Katrin, Monique Newiak, Kalpana Kochhar, Stefania Fabrizio, Kangni Kpodar, Philippe Wingender, Benedict Clements & Gerd Schwartz (2013): Women, work, and the economy. Macroeconomic gains from gender equity. (IMF staff discussion note 2013,10), Washington, DC, 32 S.

Abstract

"Women make up a little over half the world's population, but their contribution to measured economic activity, growth, and well-being is far below its potential, with serious macroeconomic consequences. Despite significant progress in recent decades, labor markets across the world remain divided along gender lines, and progress toward gender equality seems to have stalled. Female labor force participation (FLFP) has remained lower than male participation, women account for most unpaid work, and when women are employed in paid work, they are overrepresented in the informal sector and among the poor. They also face significant wage differentials vis-à-vis their male colleagues. In many countries, distortions and discrimination in the labor market restrict women's options for paid work, and female representation in senior positions and entrepreneurship remains low. The challenges of growth, job creation, and inclusion are closely intertwined. While growth and stability are necessary to give women the opportunities they need, women's participation in the labor market is also a part of the growth and stability equation. In particular, in rapidly aging economies, higher female labor force participation can boost growth by mitigating the impact of a shrinking workforce. Better opportunities for women can also contribute to broader economic development in developing economies, for instance through higher levels of school enrollment for girls. This Staff Discussion Note examines the specific macro-critical features of women's participation in the labor market, the constraints preventing women from developing their full economic potential, and possible policies to overcome these obstacles. Implementing policies that remove labor market distortions and create a level playing field for all will give women the opportunity to develop their potential and to participate in economic life more visibly. The analysis presented in this Staff Discussion Note is based on research undertaken in academia and by other international financial institutions, in addition to the IMF's own surveillance and research work (Appendix 1)." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Erhel, Christine & Mathilde Guergoat-Lariviere (2013): Labor market regimes, family policies, and women's behavior in the EU. In: Feminist economics, Jg. 19, H. 4, S. 76-109. DOI:10.1080/13545701.2013.842649

Abstract

"Using the EU-SILC database (2005 - 06) for twenty-four European countries, this article develops a comparative perspective on labor market situations of women and mothers with very young children in relation to labor market institutions and policies (especially childcare and leave schemes). Using multilevel multinomial logit models, our results show firstly the heterogeneity of national arrangements of women's labor market integration in Europe (including among new member states). Secondly, our results show the links between some national policy variables and women's behavior, despite the fact that individual factors explain labor market situations the most. Women's employment is positively related to formal childcare and to characteristics of national labor market regimes. The use of informal childcare is associated with lower women's employment rates, which might be explained by a substitution effect. The employment rate of mothers with very young children is positively related to public childcare and negatively to parental leave." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Goulding, Kristine (2013): Gender dimensions of national employment policies. A 24 country study. (Employment working paper 152), Geneva, 177 S.

Abstract

"The purpose of this report is to provide grounding within a global context of the emerging issues, debates and considerations of gender equality within NEPs. The report focuses on the Decent Work Agenda; demand side considerations (i.e. macro- and microeconomic environment, foreign direct investment, sectoral policies to encourage employment); supply side considerations (i.e. the development of marketable skills); control over and access to productive resources and SME development; labour market policies (active and passive labour market policies, employment services); equal opportunity and treatment in employment; social protection and labour rights; work-family balance considerations; issues surrounding unpaid work; and policy formulation, coordination, monitoring and evaluation and budgeting. The report also includes a more in-depth analysis and review on 4 country studies (Union of the Comoros, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Republic of Korea and Republic of Serbia) to compare and document both gender responsive interventions and gender equality concerns of national employment policies and strategies. Based on lessons from these 4 cases, and in combination with global trends of how gender is included in NEPS, this report will highlight proactive strategies to include gender equality in the world of work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Haaland, Venke Furre, Mari Rege, Kjetil Telle & Mark Votruba (2013): The intergenerational transfer of the gender gap in labor force participation. (CESifo working paper 4489), München, 49 S.

Abstract

"Despite well-documented convergence during the later years of the 20th century, labor force attachment remains markedly higher for men than for women. The current paper employs rich longitudinal registry data to investigate the intergenerational transfer of the gender gap in labor force participation. We explore the extent that family- and community-level characteristics, measured in childhood, differentially predict the likelihood of employment for adult Norwegian men and women. Drawing on theories pertaining to the importance of information, skills and gender norms transfer, our empirical analysis demonstrates that a parsimonious set of family- and community-level characteristics can explain a substantial part of the gender gap. These results suggest that female labor force participation is constrained by the intergenerational transfer of beliefs and expectations about family and work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Janus, Alexander L. (2013): The gap between mothers' work-family orientations and employment trajectories in 18 OECD countries. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 29, H. 4, S. 752-766. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcs055

Abstract

"Data on 18 OECD countries from the International Social Survey Program is used to examine the effect of aspects of the policy, economic, and ideological environment on the gap between mothers' work-family orientations and their actual employment trajectories over the life course. I find that there is significant cross-national variation in the gap between mothers' work-family orientations and labour market trajectories and that family policies, opportunities in the labour market, and the ideological context in different countries play an important role in accounting for variation in the orientations-employment gap. Consistent with what I call the agency moderation hypothesis, I find that mothers' responses to the broader policy, economic, and ideological environment are highly contingent on their work-family orientations. Women creatively use generous family leave provisions, take advantage of certain opportunities in the labour market, and adopt distinct compensatory strategies in the face of high childcare costs so as to minimize any discordance between their work-family orientations and actual labour force behaviour." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Janus, Alexander L. (2013): The implications of family policy regimes for mothers' autonomy. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 34, H. December, S. 96-110. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2013.09.001

Abstract

"This article is concerned with the implications of different state strategies in the area of family policy for mothers' autonomy, which I conceptualize as their freedom to choose between employment and homemaking as alternative means of self-fulfillment and economic independence. Using data on 15 OECD countries from the International Social Survey Program, I examine cross-national variation in 'the gap' between mothers' work-family orientations and employment trajectories. Cross-national variation in support for mothers' choice to work, mothers' choice to stay at home, or mothers' life-course flexibility differs from the broad picture suggest by previous research. Specifically, in contrast to suggestions that the well-developed childcare-related provisions in the Scandinavian countries and Belgium and France offer uniquely strong support for mothers' choice to work, I find that the large majority of countries (13 out of 15) offer at least moderately strong support for 'work-centered' mothers' choice or autonomy. In addition, I find that actual levels of labor force involvement exceeded ideals among the majority of 'home-centered' mothers in 7 out of 15 countries. Single mothers living in policy contexts with underdeveloped maternity leave provisions were especially likely to face incentives to work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Karamessini, Maria & Jill Rubery (Hrsg.) (2013): Women and austerity. The economic crisis and the future for gender equality. (Routledge IAFFE Advances in feminist economics 11), Abingdon: Routledge, 358 S.

Abstract

"Austerity has become the new principle for public policy in Europe and the US as the financial crisis of 2008 has been converted into a public debt crisis. However, current austerity measures risk losing past progress towards gender equality by undermining important employment and social welfare protections and putting gender equality policy onto the back burner. This volume constitutes the first attempt to identify how the economic crisis and the subsequent austerity policies are affecting women in Europe and the US, tracing the consequences for gender equality in employment and welfare systems in nine case studies from countries facing the most severe adjustment problems.
The contributions adopt a common framework to analyse women in recession, which takes into account changes in women's position and current austerity conditions. The findings demonstrate that in the immediate aftermath of the financial crisis, employment gaps between women and men declined - but due only to a deterioration in men's employment position rather than any improvements for women. Tables are set to be turned by the austerity policies which are already having a more negative impact on demand for female labour and on access to services which support working mothers. Women are nevertheless reinforcing their commitment to paid work, even at this time of increasing demands on their unpaid domestic labour." (Publisher's text, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Korpi, Walter, Tommy Ferrarini & Stefan Englund (2013): Women's opportunities under different family policy constellations. Gender, class, and inequality tradeoffs in western countries re-examined. In: Social Politics, Jg. 20, H. 1, S. 1-40. DOI:10.1093/sp/jxs028

Abstract

"This article explores tradeoffs reflecting interaction effects between socioeconomic class and different types of family policies on gender inequalities in terms of agency and economic inequality in eighteen Organization for Economic and Cultural Development countries. We identify multiple dimensions in family policies, reflecting the extent to which legislation involves claim rights supporting mothers' paid work or supporting traditional homemaking. We use constellations of multidimensional policies in combination with multilevel analysis to examine effects on class selectivity of women into employment and glass ceilings with respect to women's access to top wages and managerial positions. Our results indicate that while major negative family policy effects for women with tertiary education are difficult to find in countries with well-developed policies supporting women's employment and work-family reconciliation, family policies clearly differ in the extent to which they improve opportunities for women without university education." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Oláh, Livia Sz. & Ewa Fratczak (Hrsg.) (2013): Childbearing, women's employment and work-life balance policies in contemporary Europe. (Work and welfare in Europe), Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 224 S.

Abstract

"This volume addresses the tensions between work and welfare with respect to fertility. Focusing on childbearing choices (intentions, desires) as influential predictors of future fertility, the contributors examine the importance of labour force attachment on young women's fertility plans in the context of increased labour market flexibility and differences in work-life balance policies across Europe in the early 21st century. Both high- and low-fertility societies of different welfare regimes are studied, illuminating processes of uncertainty and risk related to insecure labour force attachment and the incoherence effect in terms of women's and men's equal access to education and employment but unequal share of domestic responsibilities, constraining fertility. The synthesis of the findings shows how childbearing choices in relation to uncertainty, risk and incoherence offer a lens for understanding the capabilities of families to have and care for children in contemporary Europe. This volume contributes to the conceptual development of further research on the complex relationship between fertility, paid work and work-life balance policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Pastore, Francesco & Simona Tenaglia (2013): Ora et non labora? A test of the impact of religion on female labor supply. (IZA discussion paper 7356), Bonn, 39 S.

Abstract

"This paper examines the influence of religion on female participation to the labor market using data relative to women aged between 18 and 60 years in 47 European countries drawn from the European Values Study (EVS). We investigate the determinants of the probability of being employed rather than jobless in a LOGIT framework. The results show that women belonging to the Orthodox and, even more, Muslim denominations present a higher risk of non-employment than the agnostics, while being a Protestant increases the probability for a woman to be employed. Although its intensity is slightly weakening, the association between religious affiliation and female labor supply is robust to different sets of controls for individual and household heterogeneity as well as for welfare regimes and country specificities. Once disentangling religiously active and non-active women, we find that there are small differences between them in the case of the Orthodox and Muslim women, while active Catholic women tend to work less and non-active Protestant women tend to work more than average." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Smith, Mark, Agnieszka Piasna, Brendan Burchell, Jill Rubery, Anthony Rafferty, Janna Rose & Lauren Carter (2013): Women, men and working conditions in Europe. A report based on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey. Dublin, 98 S. DOI:10.2806/46958

Abstract

"Despite much legislative progress in gender equality over the past 40 years, there are still gender gaps across many aspects of the labour market. Inequalities are still evident in areas such as access to the labour market, employment patterns and associated working conditions. This report explores gender differences across several dimensions of working conditions, examining relevant country differences, analysing the different occupational groups of both men and women, and comparing the public and private sectors. It also looks at the impact of the crisis on gender segregation in employment. Based on¿ findings from the ¿fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), conducted in 2010, the analysis offers a striking picture of women and men at work across 34 European countries today." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sulak, Harun (2013): Frauenerwerbstätigkeit in Deutschland und im europäischen Vergleich. Aktuelle Entwicklung und Hintergründe. In: Bevölkerungsforschung aktuell, Jg. 34, H. 3, S. 11-21.

Abstract

"Die Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen steht immer wieder im Fokus von Politik und Medien. Sei es bei der Frage nach einer gleichberechtigten Arbeitsmarktintegration zwischen den Geschlechtern im Allgemeinen oder bei der Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf bzw. beim Ehegattensplitting im deutschen Steuerrecht im Speziellen. Auch in der Diskussion um den Fachkräftebedarf in Deutschland wird oft auf das vorhandene Potenzial bei der weiblichen Erwerbsbevölkerung hingewiesen (Bundesagentur für Arbeit 2012). Die Daten zur Erwerbsstatistik weisen seit Jahren eine steigende Quote erwerbstätiger Frauen auf, sowohl für Deutschland als auch für Europa. Innerhalb der letzten zehn Jahre fiel der Anstieg in Deutschland dabei doppelt so hoch aus wie im Durchschnitt der EU. Der Abstand zur höheren Erwerbstätigenquote der Männer hat sich in diesem Zeitraum nochmals verringert - in Deutschland und auch im EU-Schnitt um rund 30 %. Mittlerweile nimmt Deutschland bei der Erwerbstätigenquote von Frauen unter den EU-Staaten einen der vorderen Plätze ein." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Thévenon, Olivier (2013): Drivers of female labour force participation in the OECD. (OECD social, employment and migration working papers 145), Paris, 57 S. DOI:10.1787/5k46cvrgnms6-en

Abstract

"This paper analyses the response of female labour force participation to the evolution of labour markets and policies supporting the reconciliation of work and family life. Using country-level data from the early 1980s for 18 OECD countries, we estimate the influence of labour market and institutional characteristics on female labour force participation, and full-time and part-time employment participation. The relationship (interactions, complementarity) between different policy measures is also analyzed, as well as potential variations in the influence of policies across different Welfare regimes. The results first highlight how the increase in female educational attainment, the expansion of the service sector the increase in part-time employment opportunities have boosted women's participation in the labour force. By contrast, there is no such clear relationship between female employment rates and the growing share of public employment. Employment rates react to changes in tax rates, in leave policies, but the rising provision of childcare formal services to working parents with children not yet three years old is a main policy driver of female labour force participation. Different policy instruments interact with each other to improve overall effectiveness. In particular, the coverage of childcare services is found to have a greater effect on women's participation in the labour market in countries with relatively high degrees of employment protection. The effect of childcare services on female full-time employment is particularly strong in Anglophone and Nordic countries. In all, the findings suggest that the effect of childcare services on female employment is stronger in the presence of other measures supporting working mothers (as, for instance paid parental leave) while the presence of such supports seems to reduce the effectiveness of financial incentives to work for second earners. The effect of cash benefits for families and the duration of paid leave on female labour force participation also vary across welfare regimes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"This report is a result of the Institute's work of the past three years, which presents a synthetic measure of gender equality - the Gender Equality Index. It is the only index that gives a comprehensive map of gender gaps in the EU and across Member States based on the EU policy framework" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"The Country Profiles is a complementary publication to the main Gender Equality Index report. It provides the Gender Equality Index scores and gives supplemental comparable information on each Member State and the EU-27 overall. The Country Profiles offers a snapshot of national contexts, enhancing the usefulness of the Index scores and supporting their interpretation, to give policymakers and other users an update on the development of each Member State in the area of gender equality since 2005. It presents relevant variables to measure gender equality that are not included in the Index for methodological reasons." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

(2013): Feeling the squeeze? Pay, wages and income under pressure. In: Foundation Focus H. 14, S. 1-23.

Abstract

"This issue of Foundation Focus looks at issues surrounding pay, wages and income in Europe in the face of sustained difficult economic circumstances. For example, what sort of hardship are ordinary people experiencing? Which workers are being most affected by wage cuts? Are wage cuts the best way to achieve competitiveness? Given the pressure on pension systems, how many Europeans are returning to work after retirement? European countries make extensive use of collectively agreed pay; is real pay matching or surpassing the agreements reached through social dialogue? And what would be the impact of a Europe-wide minimum wage? These are among the questions addressed in this issue." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"The Report focuses on assessing the application of the equal pay provisions in practice in EU Member States and predicts that, for the future, the main challenge for all of them will be the correct application and enforcement of the rules established by the Directive. The Report is accompanied by Annexes providing guidance on gender-neutral job evaluation and classification systems, as well as an overview of the landmark EU and national case-law on equal pay and examples of national best practices." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Geschlechtsspezifische Ungleichheiten machen sich in allen Bereichen des Wirtschaftslebens bemerkbar und bedeuten sowohl für die betroffenen Personen als auch für die Volkswirtschaft insgesamt hohe Verluste in Form von entgangener Produktivität und niedrigeren Lebensstandards. Dieser neue OECD-Bericht befasst sich mit Lösungsansätzen zur Beseitigung dieser geschlechtsspezifischen Ungleichheiten unter folgenden thematischen Gesichtspunkten: Geschlechtergleichstellung, soziale Normen und öffentliche Politik sowie Geschlechtergleichstellung in Bildung, Berufsleben und Unternehmertum.
Die Kernaussagen lauten:
- Die Verbesserung der Geschlechtergleichheit beim Bildungsniveau hat einen stark positiven Effekt auf das Wirtschaftswachstum.
- Geschlechterstereotypen muss schon im jungen Alter bei den Bildungsentscheidungen in der Schule entgegengewirkt werden. So sollten beispielsweise Unterrichtsmethoden und -materialien angepasst werden, um Jungen stärker für das Lesen und Mädchen stärker für Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften zu begeistern; Mädchen sollten ermutigt werden, verstärkt naturwissenschaftliche, ingenieurwissenschaftliche und mathematische Studienfächer zu wählen und eine Berufstätigkeit in diesen Bereichen anzustreben.
- Gute und bezahlbare Kinderbetreuung ist ein ausschlaggebender Faktor für die Verbesserung der Geschlechtergleichstellung im Berufsleben. Veränderungen sind jedoch auch im familiären Kontext notwendig, da der überwiegende Teil der Hausarbeit und Kindererziehung in vielen Ländern immer noch von den Frauen geleistet wird. Diese Veränderungen können von der Politik unterstützt werden, beispielsweise durch Elternurlaubsregelungen, die Väter explizit einschließen.
- Fördermaßnahmen für Unternehmen in Frauenbesitz müssen auf alle Unternehmen, nicht nur auf Neugründungen und Kleinbetriebe, ausgerichtet werden. Es muss ein gleichberechtigter Zugang zu Finanzierungsmitteln für männliche und weibliche Unternehmer gewährleistet werden." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Abstract

"From unprecedented population ageing to increasing unemployment, from global leadership imbalances to persisting conflicts, from resource scarcity to volatile global food supplies, the world faces a series of interconnected challenges. The Global Agenda Council on Women's Empowerment aims to highlight how women's empowerment is a part of the solutions to these challenges.
This compendium outlines how women's advancement may impact and provide solutions to five specific global challenges:
- Demography
- Leadership
- Food Security and Agriculture
- Sustainability and Resource Scarcity
- Conflict
This report consists of five concise issue descriptions and links each challenge to women's empowerment and gender parity, with an emphasis on action items and recommendations. By shedding light on the link between women's empowerment and a specific challenge, this compendium aims to provide non-experts with a stronger elementary understanding of the impact that empowering women and girls can have on their area of interest." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Europäische Kommission. Generaldirektion Forschung und Innovation (2013): She figures 2012. Gender in research and innovation. Statistics and indicators. (She figures 4), Brüssel, 153 S. DOI:10.2777/38520

Abstract

"Women employed as researchers still remain a minority, but are they catching up? Is their distribution throughout different fields of science changing over time? Are women effectively progressing in their careers to achieve top level positions? Are more women sitting on executive or advisory boards of research organisations?
Since 2003, the Directorate General for Research and Innovation of the European Commission publishes statistics and indicators on women in science and research to provide answers to the above questions, and more. The She Figures 2012 contains the most recent available data on the involvement of women covering the period from tertiary education to employment and their work-life outlook, in the 27 EU Member States and in the Associated Countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"A new brochure explains what the gender pay gap is, its causes, and why closing it makes sense for both businesses and society in general. Key figures on equality between men and women in work are also provided, as well as information on the EU's work to tackle the pay gap and examples of national good practices." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Anderson, Robert, Hans Dubois, Tadas Leončikas & Eszter Sandor (2012): Third European quality of life survey. Quality of life in Europe: Impacts of the crisis. Dublin, 163 S. DOI:10.2806/42471

Abstract

"What determines life satisfaction and happiness? How do we value our social situation and immediate surroundings? How has this changed with the economic crisis? For the third wave of the European Quality of Life survey, 35,500 Europeans in all EU Member States were interviewed, in an effort to gain insights to these questions. This overview report presents findings and trends and shows that the impacts of the recession are indeed noticeable and measurable in some areas, while in others there are more long-term developments to be observed. While overall life satisfaction levels have not changed much, optimism about the future and trust in institutions have declined markedly in those countries most affected by the downturn. And groups that were already vulnerable - the long-term unemployed, older people in central and eastern Europe and single parents - report the highest levels of material deprivation and dissatisfaction with their life situation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bericat, Eduardo (2012): The European Gender Equality Index. Conceptual and analytical issues. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 108, H. 1, S. 1-28. DOI:10.1007/s11205-011-9872-z

Abstract

"This article presents a composite indicator designed to measure and compare existing structural gender equality in the countries of the European Union. The construction of an index is always a complex task which requires making a great many important conceptual, analytical and empirical decisions. This complexity explains the wide variety of gender equality indices created during the last 25 years. All the proposed indices attempt to measure the same thing, gender (in)equality, but none of them define the concept they want to measure in exactly the same way, nor do they operationalize measurement in the same manner. Taking into account the methodology of these preceding approaches, this article explains the basis for the most important analytical and conceptual decisions made in constructing the European Gender Equality Index. The article also includes the overall scores obtained by the 27 European countries on this index, on its three basic dimensions (education, work and power), and on the eighteen indicators that make up its structure. With this data, corresponding to 2009, an adequate analysis of gender equality in Europe can be established." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bettio, Francesca, Marcella Corsi, Carlo D'Ippoliti, Antigone Lyberaki, Manuela Samek Lodovici & Alina Verashchagina (2012): The impact of the economic crisis on the situation of women and men and on gender equality policies. Synthesis report. Brüssel, 174 S.

Abstract

"The report examines the impact of the global economic crisis on the situation of women and men in Europe and on gender equality policies. Il suggests that there has been a levelling down of gender gaps in employment, unemployment, wages, and poverty. Finds that the labour market behaviour of women has been similar to that of men. Argues that although there is evidence of contained but uneven retrenchment in welfare provision in the first years of the crisis, there is a threat that fiscal consolidation might ultimately reduce both welfare provision and related employment - with associated gender equality impacts. Finds that in the vast majority of countries gender mainstreaming has not been implemented in policy design and policy implementation over the crisis." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bičáková, Alena (2012): Gender unemployment gaps in the EU. Blame the family. (CERGE-EI working paper 475), Prag, 44 S.

Abstract

"We provide a parsimonious explanation for 80% of the extensive variation in gender unemployment gaps across the EU. We do so by dividing the EU countries into two groups and applying a single explanatory factor within each group. Specifically, we suggest that gender unemployment gaps arise through a mechanism that involves the effect of childbirth on women's labor force participation. We account for most of the cross-country differences in the said gaps by the prevalence of gender discrimination within the group of countries where many women permanently leave the labor force after childbirth and by the length of statutory family leaves within the remaining group of EU countries. In addition, gender unemployment gaps among individuals with children younger than five result, to a great extent, from the drop in female labor force participation after childbirth, which implies a negative selection of women into the labor force at that stage of life." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hausmann, Ricardo, Laura D. Tyson & Saadia Zahidi (2012): The global gender gap report 2012. (The global gender gap report), Genf, 371 S.

Abstract

"The Global Gender Gap Report 2012 benchmarks national gender gaps of 135 countries on economic, political, education- and health-based criteria. The Global Gender Gap Index was developed in 2006, partially to address the need for a consistent and comprehensive measure of gender equality that can track a country's progress over time. The index points to potential role models by revealing those countries that - within their region or income group - are leaders in dividing resources more equitably between women and men than other countries, regardless of the overall level of resources available.
The Global Gender Gap Report 2012 emphasizes persisting gender gap divides across and within regions. Based on the seven years of data available for the 111 countries that have been part of the report since its inception, it finds that the majority of countries covered have made slow progress on closing gender gaps.
This year's findings show that Iceland tops the overall rankings in The Global Gender Gap Index for the fourth consecutive year. Finland ranks in second position, overtaking Norway (third). Sweden remains in fourth position. Northern European countries dominate the top 10 with Ireland in the fifth position, Denmark (seventh) and Switzerland (10th). New Zealand (sixth), Philippines (eighth) and Nicaragua (ninth) complete the top 10.
The index continues to track the strong correlation between a country's gender gap and its national competitiveness. Because women account for one-half of a country's potential talent base, a nation's competitiveness in the long term depends significantly on whether and how it educates and utilizes its women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Korn, Evelyn & Matthias Wrede (2012): The effect of long-term-care subsidies on female labor supply and fertility. (CESifo working paper 3931), München, 25 S.

Abstract

"Fertility and the provision of long-term care are connected by an aspect that has not received attention so far: both are time consuming activities that can be produced within the household or bought at the market and are, thus, connected through the intertemporal budget constraint of the household that accounts for time and money. This paper models that link and analyzes the effect of intervention in the long-term-care market on female labor-market related decisions. It shows that women's fertility as well as their labor supply when young are affected by such policies. The overall effect can be decomposed into an opportunity-cost effect and a consumption-smoothing effect that each impact fertility as well as labor supply in opposite directions. Using European survey data, the paper shows that the consumption-smoothing effect is dominant." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Nopo, Hugo, Nancy Daza & Johanna Ramos (2012): Gender earning gaps around the world. A study of 64 countries. In: International Journal of Manpower, Jg. 33, H. 5, S. 464-513. DOI:10.1108/01437721211253164

Abstract

"The purpose of this paper is to analyze gender disparities in labor earnings for a comprehensive set of 64 countries.
Using the methodological approach proposed by Ñopo, socio-demographic characteristics are used to match males and females such that gender earnings disparities are computed only among individuals with the same observable characteristics.
Disparities are partially attributed to gender differences in observable socio-demographic and job characteristics. After matching males and females with the same characteristics, the authors found that the earnings gap falls within a range between 8 per cent and 48 per cent of average females' earnings, being more pronounced in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. The unexplained earnings gaps are more pronounced among part-time workers and those with low education levels.
This paper presents a comprehensive view of gender earnings gaps in the world, simultaneously exploring many of the issues highlighted in the related literature. It adds value by exploring gender gaps in a comparative perspective, applying the same methods for several different countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Smith, Mark (2012): Social regulation of the gender pay gap in the EU. In: European journal of industrial relations, Jg. 18, H. 4, S. 365-380. DOI:10.1177/0959680112465931

Abstract

"There has been more than 30 years of equal pay legislation in the European Union yet the gap between male and female earnings has remained remarkably resilient and is present across all Member States, regardless of national institutional arrangements. The European regulatory landscape has changed to one relying heavily on soft law approaches and with more limited ambitions in the field of gender equality than at the creation of the European Employment Strategy in 1997. In this environment the European Commission has placed greater emphasis on the role of social partners in addressing the gender pay gap. This article critically reviews the role of social partners in addressing these pay inequalities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))