Zitatform

Bento, Pedro (2025): Female entrepreneurship in the U.S. 1982 - 2012: Implications for welfare and aggregate output. In: Journal of monetary economics, Jg. 149. DOI:10.1016/j.jmoneco.2024.103676

Abstract

"The number of women-owned businesses in the U.S. has soared over the last several decades. In 1982 less than 13 percent of businesses were majority-owned by women. By 2012 this number reached 40 percent. This and other evidence suggests that women have faced significant barriers to running businesses. Interpreted through the lens of a model of entrepreneurship, observed trends imply substantial declines in several barriers facing female entrepreneurs. Together, these changes account for almost 4 percent of observed growth in aggregate output and a 3 percent increase in workers’ consumption-equivalent welfare since 1982. By 2012, lower barriers increased the welfare of female entrepreneurs by a dramatic 116 percent, while lowering the welfare of male entrepreneurs by 5 percent. These impacts are in addition to any gains to workers from declining labor-market barriers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))

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Cannavale, Chiara, Giorgia Rivieccio, Lorenza Claudio & Iman Zohoorian Nadali (2025): The translation of latent into actual entrepreneurship: the impact of GE. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 21, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01017-w

Abstract

"This study seeks to answer two questions: Is latent entrepreneurship a predictor of entrepreneurial activity? Does Gender Egalitarianism affect the translation of latent into actual entrepreneurship? We developed a quantitative analysis based on a regression with unbalanced panel data covering the 2002–2020 period across 42 countries. We employed data from Global Entrepreneurship Monitor to investigate latent entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial activity. We considered values lagged by three years for latent entrepreneurship and actual data for entrepreneurial activity. We took cultural data from the GLOBE Project to measure Gender Egalitarianism across countries and used both “as is” (Gender Egalitarianism Practices) and “should be” (Gender Egalitarianism Values) scores. Findings indicate that Gender Egalitarianism Values and Gender Egalitarianism Practices mainly have a curvilinear effect on entrepreneurial activity, showing an inverted U-shape relationship. The main contribution is Gender Egalitarianism’s non-linear moderating role in the relationship between latent and actual entrepreneurship: higher Gender Egalitarianism Values and Gender Egalitarianism Practices significantly reduce the effect of latent entrepreneurship on entrepreneurial activity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hirschfeld, Alexander, Jannis Gilde, Vanusch Walk, Franziska Teubert & Clara Stellbrink (2025): Female Founders Monitor 2025. 26 S. DOI:10.11586/2025011

Abstract

"Aktuell braucht Deutschland vor allem eins: mehr Innvoation - und dafür braucht es mehr Startups. Mit frischen Ideen und unternehmerischem Drive machen sie unsere Wirtschaft zukunftsfest und nutzen Chancen in neuen Feldern, wie der Künstlichen Intelligenz." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Skare, Marinko, Beáta Gavurová & Viliam Kovac (2025): Female entrepreneurship involvement in digital transformation process through perspective of gender employment and pay gaps. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 21, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01060-7

Abstract

"The main goal of the study is to investigate and to quantify the relations between the gender aspects and the processes of digital transformation in a relation to the eco-innovation processes. The processes of digital transformation in enterprises bring the changes of business strategies, processes, management, principles, approaches, and methods. A change in the roles of the managerial and other work positions, which can have an impact on efficiency of engaged processes in enterprises, is associated with them. The actual research studies aimed at investigating the female role in the leadership position have been focused on business processes mainly, which the effect of leadership is not difficult to quantify within. The procedures of digital transformation and the eco-innovation processes within them bring new dimension of the managerial work and a need for several technical, economic, and personal changes. According to the examined literature review, the three research questions are formulated, whilst each one is related to the particular examined field – the gender employment gap, the gender pay gap, and the female entrepreneurship participation. The applied regression analysis with the testing phase serves to analyse the data gathered. The carried-out analysis provides the interesting finding also from a geographical view. The gender employment gap in its different forms is confirmed by the outcomes of the constructed panel regression models in a majority of the explored cases. The gender pay gap is not seen as statistically significant. The female entrepreneurship participation represents the strongest point and it is confirmed absolutely at all. The study outcomes will support the creation of active environmental and innovation policies at the national and international level. Investigating gender diversity and its impact on the eco-innovation processes will enable the creation of mechanisms for eliminating the gender disparities, improving environmental reputation, and for effective decision-making processes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Uebbing, Lina, Marius Claus Wehner, Alba Yela Aránega & José Manuel Guaita Martínez (2025): Make it or leave it?– An exploration of post-foundation dynamics among female entrepreneurs. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 21, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01065-2

Abstract

"Female entrepreneurs encounter several barriers before starting a business. The prevalent association of entrepreneurship with masculine stereotypes in many countries is a contributing factor as to why fewer women pursue entrepreneurial ventures. Yet our understanding of whether these barriers vanish once females have founded a new business remains limited. To shed more light on women’s experiences, we conducted 32 semi-structured interviews to investigate German female entrepreneurs’ perceptions of challenges post-foundation. Our findings show that female entrepreneurs are still affected by stereotypes of their private and professional surroundings after their business has launched. The main reasons for exiting their businesses are experienced role conflicts that may result in mental health issues. Based on these findings, we developed a framework illustrating how women navigate through the entrepreneurial lifecycle, encountering increased role incongruity as they become more deeply immersed in the entrepreneurial environment. Understanding the factors through which women decide about their future paths is important for researchers and practitioners to support female entrepreneurs after new business startup. We conclude that sustained private and professional as well as instrumental and non-instrumental support during the early stages after starting a new venture may help sustain the share of female entrepreneurs and reduce the share of females resigning and going into other labor." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Voß, Julia, Benjamin Butz & Kerstin Ettl (2025): What’s driving them? A qualitative approach to explore women entrepreneurs’ motivations in STEM. In: International journal of gender and entrepreneurship, Jg. 17, H. 2, S. 215-244. DOI:10.1108/ijge-09-2023-0241

Abstract

"Purpose: Entrepreneurship and the disciplines of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) are considered important drivers of innovation. At the same time, the representation of women entrepreneurs in STEM remains low. Despite this disparity, a number of women still choose to start ventures and persist in pursuing their innovations in STEM. This study aims to examine the motivational factors that drive women entrepreneurs to approach and consistently pursue their innovations and ventures in STEM. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on the concept of the heterogeneity of motivational factors (Graham and Bonner, 2022) and Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 2001; Wood and Bandura, 1989), 24 semi-structured interviews were conducted with women entrepreneurs in STEM. This approach allowed for an in-depth exploration of the heterogeneous motivational factors influencing women entrepreneurs in STEM. Findings The motivations of women entrepreneurs in STEM are multifaceted, interrelated and dynamic. They encompass personal and cognitive, behavioral and environmental factors and partly change over time. This study reveals two levels of heterogeneity: the heterogeneity of women entrepreneurs’ entrepreneurial motivations, and the within-context heterogeneity of women entrepreneurs in STEM themselves. Originality/value This study addresses the need for a deeper understanding of women entrepreneurs in STEM. By focusing on nuanced aspects of entrepreneurial motivations that are often overlooked in the existing literature, this research provides valuable insights and discusses implications for theory, policy and education." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Boddington, Monique Ingrid (2024): Reshaping gendered norms in entrepreneurship: Incorporating gender identity and entrepreneurial practice. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 31, H. 2, S. 378-398. DOI:10.1111/gwao.13075

Abstract

"This paper presents a practice theoretical conception of gender in entrepreneurship, emphasizing the potential of reflexivity and collective agency to reshape gendered norms. While the literature recognizes the fluidity of gender and its intersectional nature, it often overlooks how social phenomena are produced and relate to each other. The main aim of this is to show, not just how, gendered norms of entrepreneurial practice inhibit practice (which has been extensively covered) but how identity and the individualized practice of entrepreneurship, can shift gendered norms of entrepreneurial practice. Drawing upon the theories of Pierre Bourdieu and Margaret Archer, this paper proposes a more integrative approach to identity and gendered norms, embedded within a social realist approach. The author highlights the need for structural renegotiation in entrepreneurship through reflexivity. Given how norms self‐naturalize, individual practice of diverse gendered practices in entrepreneurship is not enough to create long‐term sustainable change and support for diversegendered practices. Instead, this paper proposes an integrative approach to identity and gendered norms, emphasizing the potential of individuals to shift structural norms, through collective action. This study suggests that a more balanced understanding of the interplay between context and identity can assist in the design of support for non‐traditional gendered practices and provide new insights into how gendered norms impact entrepreneurial activity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Bonaparte, Yosef, Frank J. Fabozzi, David Koslowsky & Madhavan Parthasarathy (2024): The gender wage gap and its effect on women's entrepreneurship. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 56, H. 38, S. 4563-4575. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2023.2212968

Abstract

"We demonstrate an inverse relationship between women’s financial equality status with men (as proxied by gender wage gap), and women’s entrepreneurship participation at the U.S. state level. Gender wage gap affects women’s opportunity cost of the entrepreneurship decision. In states where women’s status is lower, women’s opportunity cost of becoming an entrepreneur is lower because their wages are lower, increasing women’s entrepreneurship participation. We also demonstrate that states’ demographics are important factors, but only education is specific to women. Collectively, we find that women choose to be entrepreneurial when their status is lower, which reflects women’s economic resiliency." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Coates, Dermot & Martina Lawless (2024): Entrepreneur characteristics and determinants of self-employment across Europe. (ESRI working paper / Economic and Social Research Institute 772), Dublin, 38 S.

Abstract

"Entrepreneurship is a key driver of jobs and innovation. This paper examines the prevalence of entrepreneurship across Europe and characteristics of those who become entrepreneurs. We place a particular focus on the distinction between opportunity and necessity motivations for becoming self-employed. The results in this paper find that one of the most significant barriers to entrepreneurship in Europe is lack of access to finance although this is noticeably lower in Ireland. Examining the characteristics of the self-employed, we find that participation by women and those in younger age cohorts (19-24 and 25-29) are significantly lower than for other groups. The results also suggest that considerations related to personal finances are amongst the main difficulties encountered in being selfemployed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cowling, Marc & Ondřej Dvouletý (2024): When a non-gendered start-up policy delivers for female entrepreneurs: Evidence from the UK start-up loan scheme. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 20, H. 2, S. 1089-1109. DOI:10.1007/s11365-023-00934-6

Abstract

"This research contributes to the state of knowledge on gender aspects of entrepreneurship and SME-promoting policies from the perspective of the United Kingdom. In this paper, we draw upon the largest public policy intervention aimed explicitly at fostering new business start-ups, the Start-Up Loan (SUL) scheme. Since its inception in 2012 until the present day, question whether female start-up entrepreneurs were over-represented in terms of scheme participation, which would be the case if the barriers they face when seeking to start a new business are greater than their male peers. First, the study exploits available secondary data from the Eurostat and Global Entrepreneurship Monitor to determine the participation of females in entrepreneurship during the last decades. Second, we exploit the administrative data of the participants of the SUL scheme between 2012 and 2022 (N = 98,026). Methodologically, the study relies on summary statistical tools and estimation of the Cox proportional hazard models, predicting the loan default rates of the supported individuals across genders. With an average female representation of 40% over the last decade on the SUL scheme, which is significantly higher than in the UK business population, a very positive and unintended consequence of the scheme is that tens of thousands of female entrepreneurs were given the support that, in its absence, may have prevented or discouraged them from starting their new business. Furthermore, females participating in the SUL scheme have lower hazard rates than males." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Gomez, Claudia, B. Yasanthi Perera & Lucas M. Engelhardt (2024): The distinct nature of U.S. based female immigrant entrepreneurs. In: Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, Jg. 36, H. 3-4, S. 312-340. DOI:10.1080/08985626.2023.2264803

Abstract

"Despite contributing to host country economies, there is limited examination of self-employed female immigrants in the literature. While human, social, and financial capital are important for entrepreneurship in general, given immigrant women's intersectional identities, the potential exists for these factors to affect them differently. This study uses US data obtained from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) to empirically test the relationship of human, social, and financial capital on female immigrants self-employment and compares these relationships with US-born women and male immigrants. While the results are mixed, overall, the findings suggest that female immigrants odds of being self-employed, in relation to their levels of human, social, and financial capital, are influenced to a greater extent by their immigrant identity than their gender identity. Implications for future research and public policy are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Görg, Holger & Ina C. Jäkel (2024): Beyond Borders: Do Gender Norms and Institutions Affect Female Businesses? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17123), Bonn, 52 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, we investigate whether gender norms and institutions act as a constraint to the performance of female businesses. We exploit novel and unique micro data on start-ups in Denmark, which we combine with information on individual-level characteristics of the entrepreneur as main decision maker of the firm. We overcome the challenge of disentangling norms and institutional biases against women from other constraints and hurdles that female businesses might face by exploiting detailed trade data. In this trade context, we study the relative performance of firms across markets with varying institutions, while controlling for other factors that affect female businesses uniformly across all markets. We provide evidence that gender inequality and institutional biases against women in trade partner countries play an important role in explaining gender differences in export and import behaviour. We also perform an event study of a concrete policy change in a destination market – the introduction of quotas for the share of females on the boards of directors in Norway – and how it has affected the gender gap in trade participation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hirschfeld, Alexander, Tobias Kollmann, Jannis Gilde, Vanusch Walk & Mia Ansorge (2024): Deutscher Startup Monitor 2024. Den Blick nach vorne. Berlin, 62 S.

Abstract

"Der Startup-Jobmotor stottert, aber Blick nach vorne ist positiv: Nach dem stetigen Aufwärtstrend der letzten Jahre sinkt die durchschnittliche Mitarbeitendenzahl in diesem Jahr von 18,9 auf 16,7 – gleichzeitig gehen aber 79,8 % von einer Verbesserung der Geschäftslage bis Ende 2025 aus. Profitabilität und B2B stehen im Mittelpunkt: Im Kontext anhaltender Herausforderungen rückt bei Startups Profitabilität (78,8 %) gegenüber schnellem Wachstum (54,0 %) in den strategischen Fokus – außerdem steigt der Anteil am Umsatz mit Geschäftskunden auf 74,7 % (2023: 70,4 %). Nachhaltigkeit bleibt Fokus: Auch im Kontext der wirtschaftlichen Herausforderungen rücken deutsche Startups nicht von ihrem klaren Bekenntnis zur ökologischen Nachhaltigkeit ab und die Selbstzuordnung zur Green Economy steigt leicht von 46,7 % 2023 auf 48,1 %. Der Gründerinnenanteil sinkt: Nach dem langsamen, aber kontinuierlichen Anstieg in den letzten Jahren geht der Anteil der Frauen unter deutschen Startup-Gründer*innen in diesem Jahr von 20,7 % auf 18,8 % zurück. Hochschulen schaffen unternehmerische Innovation: Der Anteil an Startups, die von einer Hochschule unterstützt wurden, steigt von 49,2 % auf 55,1 %. Während vor allem die gute Vernetzung (62,4 %) hervorgehoben wird, bewerten nur 39,5 % die Vorbereitung auf den Startup-Alltag positiv. DeepTech spielt signifikante Rolle: 11,4 % der deutschen Startups lassen sich der Kategorie DeepTech zuordnen. Sie zeichnen sich dadurch aus, dass sie neuste wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse und Technologien auf den Markt bringen und ihre Produkte längere Entwicklungszeiten haben. Bei Kooperationen hakt es weiter: Nur 37,5 % bewerten die Möglichkeiten zur Zusammenarbeit mit der etablierten Wirtschaft als gut – nochmal weniger als im Vorjahr (40,5 %). So ist der Anteil an Startups mit Unternehmenskooperationen seit dem Höchststand in 2020 kontinuierlich zurückgegangen, hat sich 2024 aber zumindest stabilisiert. Startups stehen für Internationalität: Der Anteil ausländischer Mitarbeitender im deutschen Startup-Ökosystem liegt bei 30,8 % und in 34,9 % der Startups gilt die Arbeitssprache Englisch – in Berlin liegen diese Werte sogar bei 42,3 % und 55,8 %. Wunsch zu Gründen entsteht meist früh: Bei sechs von zehn Gründer*innen kam die Idee, ein eigenes Unternehmen aufzubauen, bereits vor dem Karrierestart auf – entweder erstmalig in der Jugend (29,6 %) oder im Rahmen des Studiums bzw. der Ausbildung (29,9 %). Das sind die Erwartungen an die Politik: Startups erwarten vom Bund vor allem Fortschritte bei der Digitalisierung der Verwaltung (58,5 %) und für größere Scaleups steht daneben die Flexibilisierung des Arbeitsmarkts (59,5 %) im Fokus." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Hunt, Jennifer & Carolyn Moehling (2024): Do Female–Owned Employment Agencies Mitigate Discrimination and Expand Opportunity for Women? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16941), Bonn, 35 S., Appendix.

Abstract

"We create a dataset of 14,000 hand–coded help –wanted advertisements placed by employment agencies in three U.S. newspapers in 1950 and 1960, a time when help–wanted advertisements were divided into male and female sections, and collect information on agency ownership. We find that female–owned agencies specialized in vacancies for women, thereby expanding the access of female jobseekers to agency services, including for positions in majority–male occupations. Female–owned agencies advertised more skilled occupations to women than did male–owned agencies, leading to a 5.5% higher wage for women. On the other hand, female–owned agencies had a greater propensity to match male jobseekers to clerical jobs, contributing to 21% lower male wages than for male–owned agencies. The results are consistent with female proprietors having had a comparative advantage in female jobseekers and clerical occupations or with client firms having trusted female proprietors only with vacancies for women and homogeneous, lower–skill occupations. However, in choosing to establish an agency and to specialize in female jobseekers, female proprietors may have sought to mitigate employer discrimination against female jobseekers; their higher propensity to advertise majority–male occupations among professional, technical and managerial advertisements for women may also reflect discrimination mitigation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kritikos, Alexander S., Mika Maliranta, Veera Nippala & Satu Nurmi (2024): Does gender of firm ownership matter? Female entrepreneurs and the gender pay gap. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 1422), Essen, 39 S.

Abstract

"We examine how the gender of business-owners is related to the wages paid to female relative to male employees working in their firms. Using Finnish register data and employing firm fixed effects, we find that the gender pay gap is - starting from a gender pay gap of 11 to 12 percent - two to three percentage-points lower for hourly wages in female-owned firms than in male-owned firms. Results are robust to how the wage is measured, as well as to various further robustness checks. More importantly, we find substantial differences between industries. While, for instance, in the manufacturing sector, the gender of the owner plays no role for the gender pay gap, in several service sector industries, like ICT or business services, no or a negligible gender pay gap can be found, but only when firms are led by female business owners. Businesses in male ownership maintain a gender pay gap of around 10 percent also in the latter industries. With increasing firm size, the influence of the gender of the owner, however, fades. In large firms, it seems that others - firm managers - determine wages and no differences in the pay gap are observed between male- and female-owned firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Love, Inessa, Boris Nikolaev & Chandra Dhakal (2024): The well-being of women entrepreneurs: the role of gender inequality and gender roles. In: Small business economics, Jg. 62, H. 1, S. 325-352. DOI:10.1007/s11187-023-00769-z

Abstract

"The current study presents new evidence on the well-being of women entrepreneurs using data from the World Values Survey for 80 countries. Results indicate that in low- and middle-income countries, female entrepreneurs have lower well-being than male entrepreneurs, while in high-income countries, they have higher well-being. Several macro and micro-level mechanisms– institutional context, gender roles, and individual characteristics–that potentially moderate this relationship are explored. The gender gap in well-being is larger in countries with higher gender inequality, lower level of financial development, and stricter adherence to sexist gender roles. Additionally, women entrepreneurs with lower education, more children, and risk-averse preferences are more likely to report lower well-being. The results suggest several policy mechanisms that can be used to enhance the well-being of women entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Singer, Kirsten & Nicole Fleischer (2024): Die Arbeitsmarktsituation von Frauen und Männern 2023. (Berichte: Blickpunkt Arbeitsmarkt / Bundesagentur für Arbeit), Nürnberg, 29 S.

Abstract

"Die Erwerbsneigung und Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen und Männern sind in Deutschland in den letzten 10 Jahren deutlich gestiegen. Nur in wenigen Ländern Europas ist die Erwerbsbeteiligung insgesamt und insbesondere von Frauen so hoch wie in Deutschland. Frauen und Männer sind unterschiedlich in den verschiedenen Formen der Erwerbstätigkeit vertreten: Rund zwei Drittel der Selbständigen sind Männer. Die sozialversicherungspflichtig Beschäftigten sind zu über der Hälfte männlich. Bei den Beamten sind Frauen und Männer je zur Hälfte vertreten und Minijobs sind nach wie vor eine Frauendomäne." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Slavici, Melanie & Veronika Kneip (2024): Rollenerwartungen und wenn Gründerinnen sie nicht erfüllen – Szenarien zur Startup-Finanzierung und -Berichterstattung. In: Zeitschrift für Diversitätsforschung und -management, Jg. 9, H. 2-2024, S. 143-156. DOI:10.3224/zdfm.v9i2.03

Abstract

"Unser Beitrag fragt nach unterschiedlichen Rollenerwartungen, die innerhalb des StartupÖkosystems an Gründerinnen und Gründer gestellt werden, und verknüpft dafür die Role Congruity Theory (RCT) mit der Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT). Über 12 leitfadengestützte Interviews mit Investor*innen und Medienschaffenden erheben wir geschlechtsspezifische Rollenerwartungen, prüfen dann, ob diese von den Gründerinnen erfüllt werden und schließlich, inwieweit rollen(in)kongruentes Verhalten belohnt oder sanktioniert wird. Entlang von vier Szenarien zeigen wir, dass Gründerinnen keinesfalls „nur“ die Wahl zwischen Belohnung für Rollenkongruenz oder Sanktion für Rolleninkongruenz haben." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Ubfal, Diego (2024): What Works in Supporting Women-Led Businesses? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16950), Bonn, 34 S.

Abstract

"Innovative women entrepreneurs can be agents of change and offer novel solutions to global challenges. However, they face multiple barriers to growing their businesses. This paper reviews the literature on strategies to support women entrepreneurs in improving their business outcomes. It focuses on interventions designed to address four areas of constraints that influence their decisions and can impact their business performance: gaps in human capital, access to finance, access to technology and markets, and contextual factors such as legal and regulatory constraints, social norms, access to care, and gender-based violence. The review concludes that evidence of modest average treatment effects and heterogeneity in treatment effects across various interventions suggest the need for more precise targeting. The multiple constraints faced by women entrepreneurs necessitates testing different packages of interventions. Moreover, the successful implementation and adoption of proposed solutions require consideration of the contextual constraints that differentially affect women-led businesses. While the review highlights several interventions that show promise in supporting women entrepreneurs, significant gaps remain in the evidence concerning the most effective strategies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Zelekha, Yaron (2024): The effect of spouses on the entrepreneurial gender gap. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 20, H. 4, S. 2481-2514. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01008-x

Abstract

"In a novel contribution to the entrepreneurial, the Gender and Development (GAD) and the relational capital (RC) literatures, this study examines the possible role of spouses on the entrepreneurial gender gap through the family embeddedness model, which sees the family members as embedded in their social relationships and describes family systems through three interrelated characteristics (family transitions, family resources and family norms including attitudes, and values). Using a unique representative matched sample of 321 married couples, the results supports both the preselection and especially the socialization hypotheses by showing that married people have a significant association with their partners regarding their entrepreneurial tendency which also increases as marriage duration extends. Furthermore, while such similarity is associated with an increased probability for women to become an entrepreneur, it is also associated with men’s decreased probability to become an entrepreneur. Finally, clear evidence was found that family income had a significant positive association with men’s entrepreneurial tendency as well as with their probability to become entrepreneurs. However, it did not have any signifcant association with a woman’s entrepreneurial tendency nor with their probability to become entrepreneurs. The results shed light on important possible drivers for the entrepreneurial gender gap that works inside the family premises." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Ahn, Kunwon & John V. Winters (2023): Does education enhance entrepreneurship? In: Small business economics, Jg. 61, H. 2, S. 717-743. DOI:10.1007/s11187-022-00701-x

Abstract

"Formal education is correlated with entrepreneurial activity and success, but correlation does not indicate causation. Education and entrepreneurship are both influenced by other related factors. The current study estimates the causal effects of formal education on entrepreneurship outcomes by instrumenting for an individual's years of schooling using cohort mean years of maternal schooling observed decades prior. We differentiate self-employment by industry employment growth and firm incorporation status. Policymakers are especially interested in entrepreneurship with the potential to create substantial employment growth. We find that an additional year of schooling increases self-employment in high-growth industries by 1.12 percentage points for women and by 0.88 percentage points for men. Education reduces the probability of male self-employment in shrinking industries. Education also increases incorporated self-employment for women and men and reduces unincorporated self-employment among men but not women. The overall probability of self-employment increases with education for women but is unaffected by education for men. The results suggest that formal education enhances entrepreneurship." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Charpin, Agnès, Ariane Szafarz & Ilan Tojerow (2023): Female corporate owners and female CEOs. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 232. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111285

Abstract

"“Old boys’ club” ownership structures can hamper the empowerment of female talent. We use African data to show that the CEOs of firms with female shareholders are more likely to be women, regardless of the size of female shareholdings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 Elsevier) ((en))

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Köpke, Ulrike & Eva Schmitt-Rodermund (2023): Aus welchen Gründen wagen Hochschulabsolventinnen seltener den Schritt in die Selbstständigkeit als Hochschulabsolventen? Eine Analyse auf Basis des DZHW-Absolventenpanels. In: Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Jg. 75, H. 3, S. 289-318. DOI:10.1007/s11577-023-00909-z

Abstract

"Warum wagen Frauen seltener den Schritt in die Selbstständigkeit als Männer? Die vorliegende Untersuchung fokussiert auf die Umsetzung einer Selbstständigkeit durch Hochschulabsolventinnen und -absolventen und untersucht, welche Faktoren mit der Geschlechterlücke einhergehen. Die Auswahl der Prädiktoren basiert auf dem theoretischen Modell von Eccles et al. (1983), welches in der Tradition eines „Erwartung × Wert-Modells“ unter Einbeziehung sozialer, psychologischer, demografischer und ökonomischer Einflüsse die berufliche Wahlentscheidung beleuchtet. Sowohl über die Zeit hinweg stabile Merkmale, wie die Selbstständigkeit der Eltern, der fachspezifische Studienabschluss und das Big Five-Persönlichkeitsprofil, als auch dynamische und durch Lebensumstände beeinflusste Faktoren, wie Arbeits- und Lebensziele, wurden untersucht. Die Datengrundlage bildete die zweite Welle des DZHW (Deutsches Zentrum für Hochschul- und Wissenschaftsforschung) Absolventenpanel 2009 (N = 2465). Um den Einfluss der Prädiktoren auf die Geschlechterdifferenzen zu analysieren, wurden logistische Regressionsmodelle berechnet, die zum einen den Einfluss insgesamt und zum anderen den geschlechterseparierten Einfluss auf die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Umsetzung einer Selbstständigkeit untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse belegen, dass Frauen nach wie vor seltener beruflich selbstständig sind als Männer. Geschlechtsspezifische Auswertungen zeigen weiterhin, dass bei Absolventinnen vor allem Arbeits- und Lebensziele und bei Männern die Vorbildrolle der Eltern dazu führt, unternehmerisch tätig zu sein. Absolventinnen, denen ein sicherer Arbeitsplatz eher unwichtig und eine Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie weder besonders wichtig noch besonders unwichtig ist, zeigen eine höhere Wahrscheinlichkeit, selbstständig tätig zu sein, während diese Arbeits- und Lebensziele für Absolventen weniger entscheidend sind. Die Ergebnisse zeigen aber auch, dass Absolventinnen und Absolventen hinsichtlich ihres unternehmerischen Persönlichkeitsprofils gleichermaßen gut für eine berufliche Selbstständigkeit ausgestattet sind. Das Papier schließt mit Überlegungen, wie die berufliche Selbstständigkeit insbesondere bei Hochschulabsolventinnen gefördert werden kann." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag)

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Machokoto, Michael & Eugene Bempong Nyantakyi (2023): Are women-owned enterprises better for employees? In: Economics Letters, Jg. 232. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111368

Abstract

"This study provides novel survey-based insights from an under-researched developing market perspective into whether women-owned enterprises offer better working environments despite being resource-constrained and subject to engendered restrictions. Using a hand-collected survey-based dataset from Kenya and Tanzania, we find that women-owned enterprises provide more training programs, pension coverage, health insurance, female and youth employment opportunities, and are more innovative. We attribute these findings to the fact that female participation leads to a more empathic and socially responsible approach to decision-making, resulting in better employee welfare outcomes. Our findings echo the need to spur equitable and sustained economic growth by eliminating engendered restrictions and providing more resources to female entrepreneurs in developing markets." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 Elsevier) ((en))

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Metzger, Georg (2023): KfW-Gründungsmonitor 2023: Gründungstätigkeit in Deutschland: im Spannungsfeld zwischen Fachkräftemangel und Corona-Blues. (KfW-Gründungsmonitor), Frankfurt am Main, 10 S.

Abstract

"Die Gründungstätigkeit in Deutschland ist im Jahr 2022 auf 550.000 Existenzgründungen zurückgegangen. Davon waren 222.000 Vollerwerbsgründungen (40%), und 328.000 Nebenerwerbsgründungen. Bei jeder fünften Nebenerwerbsgründung besteht allerdings die Absicht, die Selbstständigkeit zum Vollerwerb auszuweiten. Die anhaltend gute Arbeitsmarktentwicklung hat maßgeblich zu diesem Rückgang beigetragen. Der Fachkräftemangel bleibt auch in Zukunft eine große Herausforderung für die Gründungstätigkeit. Insgesamt ist vor allem die Zahl der Gründerinnen gesunken, während sich die Zahl der Gründer kaum veränderte." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Oladipo, Oluwasheyi, Katarzyna Platt & Hyoung Suk Shim (2023): Female entrepreneurs managing from home. In: Small business economics, Jg. 61, H. 2, S. 447-464. DOI:10.1007/s11187-022-00713-7

Abstract

"Gender roles demand that women devote more time to non-market labor such as childcare and household responsibilities. Therefore, the labor market hinders women's ability to compete with their male counterparts, whose time is less subject to the demands of non-market work. The result is a performance gap between men and women. To obtain the flexibility to more efficiently perform both their market and non-market work, many women choose to be self-employed and operate their businesses from home. Using a large sample of US firms, we find that women who choose to operate their own businesses from home are able to narrow the performance gap between men and women entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Smyk, Magdalena, Siri Terjesen & Joanna Tyrowicz (2023): Gender wage inequality and women's self-employment. (GRAPE working paper / Group for Research in Applied Economics 88), Warszawa, 30 S.

Abstract

"Theoretical literature on entrepreneurship hints that labor market inequality may constitute a relevant push factor for self-employment. Drawing on empirical confirmation, this insight is used in many policy recommendations. We propose a new approach to test and quantify the link between labor market inequality and self-employment of women. We provide a novel and rich data set labor market inequality for women, utilizing estimates of gender wage gaps specific for age and education group, comparable for 36 countries over ten years. We exploit rich and diverse international data on patterns of self-employment from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. Our results show that greater gender wage inequality is associated with higher prevalence of self-employment for both men and women. Relative to men, women are actually discouraged from self-employment, which is consistent with the notion that discriminative labor markets are typically signs of discriminative societies. We show that actually necessity self-employment is more rare form of self-employment in unequal societies, which is consistent with explanations stressing access to resources, networks and markets as relevant dimensions of gender inequality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2023): Schwanger- und Mutterschaft für Gründerinnen und Selbständige erleichtern. (Verhandlungen des Deutschen Bundestages. Drucksachen 20/6911 (23.05.2023)), Berlin, 3 S.

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Crecente, Fernando, María Sarabia & María Teresa del Val (2022): The value of entrepreneurship by gender on regional behaviour. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 18, H. 1, S. 435-453. DOI:10.1007/s11365-021-00777-z

Abstract

"This paper examines how the value of entrepreneurship by gender is related to regional behaviour. Researchers have traditionally defined entrepreneurial organization as separate to gender and to economic growth. Using the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) we complete a dataset of 50 countries using variables such as total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) and opportunity-driven entrepreneurial activity (OPP). The methodology used proposes an analysis of regional convergence, comparing the evolution over time of both the rate of entrepreneurial activity and the ratios of opportunity-driven and need-driven entrepreneurial activity, distinguishing by gender. On the other hand, a regression model is proposed that explains the greater presence of female entrepreneurship. The results show that entrepreneurship by gender is an important factor to define different cluster of countries according to how men and women entrepreneurs create new economic opportunities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Darnihamedani, Pourya & Siri Terjesen (2022): Male and female entrepreneurs' employment growth ambitions: the contingent role of regulatory efficiency. In: Small business economics, Jg. 58, H. 1, S. 185-204. DOI:10.1007/s11187-020-00405-0

Abstract

"Entrepreneurs start and grow their ventures in a widely varying set of institutional contexts. One differentiator is a country's regulatory efficiency which encompasses the freedom to start and to run a business without excessive government interventions around registering, hiring, and firing employees, and price controls on currency. The efficiency of regulations varies substantially among countries and imposes additional costs and risks on entrepreneurs' activities. We integrate insights from institutional theory and recent literature on gender and entrepreneurship to better understand how a country's regulatory efficiency affects male and female entrepreneurs' employment growth ambitions. We explore three aspects of regulatory efficiency: business freedom (e.g., to start, operate, and close a venture), labor freedom (e.g., laws around minimum wage, layoffs, severance), and monetary freedom (e.g., price stability) using data from over 47,000 entrepreneurs in 68 countries. We find that entrepreneurs' growth ambitions are higher in countries with more efficient regulations, particularly those countries characterized by fewer labor law restrictions and greater monetary freedoms. These findings are further exacerbated by gender by such that, relative to their female counterparts, male entrepreneurs have significantly greater venture growth ambitions. Our paper contributes to the discussion on how formal institutions influence women and men entrepreneurs in distinct ways." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Elam, Amanda, Benjamin S. Baumer, Thomas Schott, Mahsa Samsami, Amit Kumar Dwivedi, Rico Baldegger, Maribel Guerrero, Fatima Boutaleb & Karen D. Hughes (2022): GEM 2021/22 Women’s Entrepreneurship Report: From Crisis to Opportunity. (GEM ... women's entrepreneurship report / Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2021/2022), London, 183 S.

Abstract

"The GEM 2021/22 Women's Entrepreneurship Report offers a trend analysis of women’s entrepreneurship in 50 countries, five global regions and three national income levels. We focus on four key themes in the first half of the report, followed by a closer analysis of region- and country-specific patterns in the second half. The four themes are (1) gender differences in rates at various points in the entrepreneurial lifecycle, from intentions through to startup activity, new business, established business and business exit; (2) gender differences in COVID impacts, both positive and negative; (3) structural inequalities and women’s participation in high-potential startups; and (4) factors in the enabling environment that likely influence gender differences in entrepreneurial activity. Our findings offer insights to a diverse audience of researchers, policymakers, educators and practitioners. Our goal is to highlight areas where women entrepreneurs have made significant progress, where the COVID-19 pandemic impacted their business outcomes, and where there are still gaps, challenges and opportunities that can be better addressed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Haasler, Simone R. & Anna Hokema (2022): Female Solo Self-Employment in Germany: The Role of Transitions and Learning From a Life Course Perspective. In: Social Inclusion, Jg. 10, H. 4, S. 150-160. DOI:10.17645/si.v10i4.5743

Abstract

"Based on a qualitative analysis of 12 solo self-employed women's work biographies, this article investigates the (re)structuring effects of solo self-employment on the professional and private lives of women in Germany in their mid- and late-career stages. While solo self-employment has been gaining significance in the German labour market in the last two decades, it is largely an underresearched subject from the perspective of female labour market participation. Our study shows that the transition to working solo self-employed constitutes a marked break in female work biographies with lasting restructuring effects on their life courses. Constituting a deviation from the female standard life course, this move can be understood as a coping strategy of biographical discontinuities, which translates into specific patterns against the background that women (still) assume most of the care and housework responsibilities. How the transition to solo self-employment is being prepared and managed and what role learning and risk management play in the transition process is the focus of our article. Our aim is to better understand the underlining rationalisation logics of female solo self-employment in terms of labour market participation, reconciling work and family life, and professional self-realisation. While in the German welfare system solo self-employed bear higher risks of precarity and financial old age insecurity, solo self-employment is functional as an individual strategy for action, giving women the opportunity to do justice to their (mid) life courses and intrinsic needs to pursue both professional work and freedom of choice when and how to work. This may act as a corrective for gender inequalities in the world of work, especially when it comes to working in a self-determined way." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Herold, Elena, Carla Krolage, Manuel Menkhoff, Annika Oberhuber & Paul Schüle (2022): Frauen als Gründerinnen: Die Covid-Pandemie vergrößert den bestehenden Gender Gap. In: Ifo-Schnelldienst, Jg. 75, H. 10, S. 36-40.

Abstract

"Der Anteil der Frauen unter den Unternehmensgründer*innen in Deutschland ist von je her niedrig. Im Zuge der Covid-19-Pandemie ist der Frauenanteil an den Einzelgründungen in den letzten Jahren sogar noch einmal deutlich gesunken. Diese Entwicklung ließ sich insbesondere in ländlichen Regionen beobachten. Insgesamt ist die Frauenquote an Neugründungen in den Großstädten und einigen ostdeutschen Kreisen am höchsten." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Kiefer, Kip, Mark Heileman & Timothy L. Pett (2022): Does gender still matter? An examination of small business performance. In: Small business economics, Jg. 58, H. 1, S. 141-167. DOI:10.1007/s11187-020-00403-2

Abstract

"This study provides novel insights into gender differences in small business outcomes. We analyze the first publicly available microdata from the 2007 US Census Bureau PUMS dataset, in a manner similar to (Fairlie and Robb's in Small Business Economics, 33, 375–395 2009) analysis of the 1992 CBO dataset, and explore differences in female-led versus male-led firms' business performances over a 15-year period. Findings indicate that gender differences persist and that female-led businesses continue to trail male-led businesses in survival rates, profits, employment (i.e., firm size), and sales. We also extend the work by (Fairlie and Robb in Small Business Economics, 33, 375–395 2009), by examining new performance and predictor measures, including payroll firm and longevity. We find that female-led businesses trail male-led businesses in these variables as well. However, the news is not all bad. Our findings also reveal that, although female-led businesses continue to trail male-led businesses in performance outcomes, both female- and male-led businesses are improving and in some cases performance improvements by female-led businesses are out-pacing their male-led counterparts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Martínez-Rodríguez, Isabel, Consolación Quintana-Rojo, Pedro Gento & Fernando-Evaristo Callejas-Albiñana (2022): Public policy recommendations for promoting female entrepreneurship in Europe. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 18, H. 3, S. 1235-1262. DOI:10.1007/s11365-021-00751-9

Abstract

"From 2021 onwards, female entrepreneurship is expected to grow very substantially as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. The introduction of teleworking and staggered hours in many countries at national or workplace level will make possible the conciliation between labour and family life. The purpose of this paper is to identify the most influential explanatory factors in the behaviour of female entrepreneurship in Europe so as to subsequently propose efficient economic policy measures to promote it. The distinction between opportunity and necessity female entrepreneurs have been considered since both motivation and factors are different in each case. 15 econometric models using the panel data method for a sample of 20 previously selected European countries (grouped by their GDP level) during the period 2001 to 2018 have been estimated to determine which explanatory factors affect female entrepreneurship and necessity-based female entrepreneurship. The empirical analysis used demonstrates that more women enter into entrepreneurship due to necessity rather than in pursuit of opportunity for European countries both with higher levels of GDP and for countries with lower levels of GDP. In this context, the following policy measures should be implemented to promote female entrepreneurship in Europe: the optimization of government spending (training courses and mentoring, public procurement, stronger networks, support in reconciling business and family life, etc.), the government incentives for subsidizing high interest rates to support women in accessing financing, and the improvement of entrepreneurship education to increase the confidence of women in themselves in their own entrepreneurial capabilities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Oggero, Noemi, Francesco Devicienti, Mariacristina Rossi & Davide Vannoni (2022): You can't be what you can't see: The role of gender in the intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurship. (Carlo Alberto notebooks 675), Turin, 33 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, we investigate how the intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurship varies between sons and daughters, and whether such a process depends on living in a country characterized by a high gender gap. Using the SHARE dataset, we find that the effect on daughters’ entrepreneurial choices of having an entrepreneur as father is lower than the one on sons only in countries with a high gender gap. Moreover, it is just in countries with high gender inequality that the effect of having an entrepreneurial mother is different between sons and daughters, with the impact being positive for daughters only. We also develop an individual-level indicator of gender gap within countries that corroborates our findings, which we interpret as evidence of the presence of a role modeling mechanism. However, we find evidence of convergence across time of the intergenerational transmission process to the gender-independent transfer typical of more gender equal countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Oladipo, Oluwasheyi S. & Hyoung Suk Shim (2022): Microentrepreneurs' Gender Difference in Labor Demand. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 15690), Bonn, 49 S.

Abstract

"This paper empirically examines firm owners' gender difference in labor demand. We estimate the average treatment effect (ATE) of female ownership on employment of the firm using the 2007 Survey of Business Owners (SBO) Public Use Micro Sample (PUMS), provided by the U.S. Census Bureau. Because female microentrepreneurs potentially demand more labor so as to allocate time for household production, we hypothesize a condition under which female microentrepreneurs employ more, and that is, if they are free from financial constraints. We show first that the estimation of the ATE for female ownership can have a downward selection bias that may yield negative ATE estimates, and this downward selection bias comes from male owners being less financially constrained than female owners. We then perform the two-stage least squares (TSLS) estimation using two sets of instrumental variables (IVs), which are indicator variables for i) inheritance; and ii) loans from bank or family/friend. The estimation results present that the female owner effect on labor demand as local average treatment effect (LATE) is identified and consistently estimated by using the IVs. From the main model estimation, we find a positive and statistically significant female owner effect that female owners hire more employees than male owners by about 25.8%." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Serrano-Pascual, Amparo & Carlota Carretero-García (2022): Women's entrepreneurial subjectivity under scrutiny: Expert knowledge on gender and entrepreneurship. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 29, H. 2, S. 666-686. DOI:10.1111/gwao.12806

Abstract

"In recent years, entrepreneurship has become a guiding principle of the thinkable, not just in economy, but also justice. Boosting entrepreneurship among women is a manifestation of this project, which a-problematically links the call for equality with the activation of the economy. The standpoint usually taken in scientific and political debates assumes that, in the case of women, there is an incompatibility between gender norms and entrepreneurial subjectivity. Considering the performative nature of knowledge production, this article analyses how gender is (un)done through the problematization of women's entrepreneurial subjectivity by expert knowledge. To do so, it reviews a sample of the scientific literature of the past 10 years focused on the complex relations in place throughout these regulatory spaces. The authors identify three types of approaches (women facing entrepreneurship, the gender of entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurship of gender) and discuss the prevailing normative assumptions, as well as the political implications, through a gender and feminist lens." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Stossier, Theresa (2022): Female Solo-Entrepreneurs. Coping Strategies for Handling the Challenges and Double Burden of Business and Private Life. (BestMasters), Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, XVIII, 178 S. DOI:10.1007/978-3-658-40336-2

Abstract

"Austria's economy is characterized through small and medium sized enterprises. Solo entrepreneurs are considered a special form within SMEs and contribute a major share to Austrian's economy besides being Austria's most popular legal form of organization within the micro firms. In 2020 every second of Carinthia's start-up businesses was established by a female entrepreneur. According to an entrepreneurship study presented by Volksbank in 2019, nearly half of all female entrepreneurs lived with children and juveniles. Two-thirds of women said they were solely responsible for family, childcare, and household and 71 percent of those female entrepreneurs specified that those circumstances caused difficulties for them. This book investigated Carinthian female solo entrepreneurs and aims to find out how these hard-working women manage their business and private life while contributing to such great extent to the (federal) state's economy. The conceptual foundations were found in embeddedness and the contextual framework which supports the importance of numerous influences on different levels placed on the entrepreneur. The empirical section represents a primary research that evaluates self-collected data sets of Carinthian solo-entrepreneurs. About the author Theresa Stossier completed a master's program in business administration at the Alpen-Adria University Klagenfurt after education and bachelor studies in the field of tourism." (Provided by publisher)

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Bastida, Maria (2021): Women's entrepreneurship and self-employment, including aspects of gendered Corporate Social Responsibility. Brüssel, 87 S. DOI:10.2861/284985

Abstract

"This study was commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the FEMM Committee. It highlights that despite the increasing number of public policies and institutional resources designed to promote women-led business, the entrepreneurship gender gap persists. This study aims to analyse this apparent contradiction, focusing on three main questions: What are the constraints that women face when deciding to become entrepreneurs? What factors attract women’s interest and motivate them to start their own business? And which policies may benefit women’s entrepreneurship?" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chiplunkar, Gaurav & Pinelopi Koujianou Goldberg (2021): Aggregate Implications of Barriers to Female Entrepreneurship. (NBER working paper 28486), Cambridge, MA, 53 S. DOI:10.3386/w28486

Abstract

"We develop a framework for identifying and quantifying barriers to entry and operation faced by female entrepreneurs in developing countries, and apply it to the Indian economy. We find that despite considerable progress over time, female entrepreneurs still face substantial entry and business registration costs (almost twice their male counterparts'). The costs of expanding a business, conditional on entry, are also substantially higher for women. However, there is one area in which female entrepreneurs have an advantage: hiring female workers is easier for them. We show that this pattern is not driven by the sectoral composition of female employment. Counterfactual simulations indicate that removing all excess barriers faced by women entrepreneurs would: (a) increase the fraction of female-owned firms significantly (nine times); (b) increase the real wages of female relative to male workers; and (c) generate substantial aggregate productivity and welfare gains (ca. 7% and 18% respectively). These large gains are due to reallocation: low productivity male-owned firms previously sheltered from female competition are replaced by higher productivity female-owned firms previously excluded from the economy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gather, Claudia & Ingrid Biermann (2021): Unternehmen: Warum gründen Frauen seltener? In: Wirtschaftsdienst, Jg. 101, H. 11, S. 838-838. DOI:10.1007/s10273-021-3036-9

Abstract

"Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass strukturelle Gründe, wie die unterschiedliche Berufswahl, die Geschlechterunterschiede bei den Gründungen zu einem guten Teil erklären können. Hinzu kommt, dass das deutsche soziale Sicherungssystem Gründerinnen mit Kinderwunsch benachteiligt." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag)

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Graeber, Daniel, Alexander S. Kritikos & Johannes Seebauer (2021): COVID-19: A Crisis of the Female Self-Employed. In: Journal of Population Economics, Jg. 34, H. 4, S. 1141-1187. DOI:10.1007/s00148-021-00849-y

Abstract

"We investigate how the economic consequences of the pandemic and the government-mandated measures to contain its spread affect the self-employed — particularly women — in Germany. For our analysis, we use representative, real-time survey data in which respondents were asked about their situation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings indicate that among the self-employed, who generally face a higher likelihood of income losses due to COVID-19 than employees, women are about one-third more likely to experience income losses than their male counterparts. We do not find a comparable gender gap among employees. Our results further suggest that the gender gap among the self-employed is largely explained by the fact that women disproportionately work in industries that are more severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Our analysis of potential mechanisms reveals that women are significantly more likely to be impacted by government-imposed restrictions, e.g., the regulation of opening hours. We conclude that future policy measures intending to mitigate the consequences of such shocks should account for this considerable variation in economic hardship." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Metzger, Georg (2021): KfW-Start-up-Report 2021. Corona-Krise belastet Zahl der Start-ups - VC-affine Start-ups aber nur wenig betroffen. (KfW-Start-up-Report ...), Frankfurt am Main, 7 S.

Abstract

"Der Bestand an innovations- oder wachstumsorientierten jungen Unternehmen in Deutschland hat durch die Corona-Krise gelitten. Im Jahr 2020 ging die Zahl der Start-ups auf 47.000 zurück, nach 70.000 im Jahr 2019. Die deutlich geringere Zahl an Gründungen konnte offensichtlich die in diesem Segment typischerweise hohe Zahl der Schließungen nicht kompensieren. Im Vergleich zum Rückgang der Start-ups insgesamt blieb die Zahl der Venture Capital-affinen Start-ups mit 8.600 (2019: 9.400) dagegen erstaunlich stabil. Bei Start-ups sind im langjährigen Durchschnitt 20 % der Gründungspersonen Frauen. Das ist nur etwa halb so häufig wie im Gründungsgeschehen insgesamt. Davon ausgehend sinkt der Anteil von Gründerinnen sukzessive, je mehr Start-up-Merkmale in die Betrachtung einbezogen werden. Hierfür spielen geschlechterstereotype Verhaltensweisen eine Rolle. Die Weichenstellung hin zu mehr Start-up-Gründerinnen liegt also bereits weit vor der Gründung. Es braucht aber auch mehr erfolgreiche Rollenvorbilder. Hier hilft mehr Diversität im Venture Capital-Ökosystem, die den Zugang von Gründerinnen zu Venture Capital (VC) verbessert." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Naldi, Lucia, Massimo Baù, Helene Ahl & Magdalena Markowska (2021): Gender (in)equality within the household and business start-up among mothers. In: Small business economics, Jg. 56, H. 3, S. 903-918. DOI:10.1007/s11187-019-00275-1

Abstract

"Using data on all businesses started by mothers of young children in Sweden between 2000 and 2014, we explore which factors are associated with entrepreneurship among mothers. We find that being unemployed or being an immigrant is positively associated with business start-up by mothers; however, our findings show that what matters more is the paternity leave taken by the mothers' partners. These findings suggest that in institutional contexts such as Sweden, gender inequality is not a persistent feature of most households and that women can make career choices by negotiating with their partners who will make use of the parental benefits offered by the government." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Türko, Esra Sena (Hrsg.) (2021): Regional Differences in Women Entrepreneurship. Berlin: Peter Lang, 223 S.

Abstract

"In women entrepreneurship studies, the regional emphasis generally remained limited to the studies carried out within the scope of regional development. Regional differences were detected in many studies. However, unless the research was conducted within the theoretical framework of the regional economy, they were not discussed within this context. This book aims to represent the findings of studies on women entrepreneurship from various theoretical frameworks, which address differences and similarities at the regional level together and reveal the big picture. In addition, the factors causing differences in women entrepreneurship at the regional level and the topics, in which differences were observed, have been examined. The research involves conceptual and applied studies." (Publisher information, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2021): Entrepreneurship Policies through a Gender Lens. (OECD studies on SMEs and entrepreneurship), Paris, 165 S. DOI:10.1787/71c8f9c9-en

Abstract

"This publication examines how to strengthen the scope and effectiveness of entrepreneurship policies for women. It examines both dedicated measures for women and ensuring that mainstream policies for all entrepreneurs are appropriate for women. Evidence is offered on the gender gap in entrepreneurship and its causes. At the heart of the report are 27 policy insight notes by leading international experts on the role of public policy in facilitating entrepreneurship by women and how policies can be strengthened. They highlight many long‑standing issues related to the scope and effectiveness of women’s entrepreneurship policies – many of which have been exacerbated by the COVID‑19 pandemic – and point the way to more effective policy. Issues addressed include fostering a gender‑sensitive entrepreneurship culture, building entrepreneurship skills for women, improving women’s access to financial capital, supporting networks for women entrepreneurs and creating supportive regulatory environments. Issues in the design and delivery of policy support are also addressed. The report was prepared by the OECD in collaboration with members of the Global Women’s Entrepreneurship Policy Research Project (Global WEP), a network of established researchers from over 30 counties." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Demetriades, Stavroula (2020): Female entrepreneurship: Public and private funding. Industrial relations. (Eurofound research report / European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions), Dublin, 46 S. DOI:10.2806/17117

Abstract

"Female entrepreneurs represent just a small proportion of the total number of entrepreneurs in the European Union today. Some of the hurdles facing female entrepreneurs – or would-be entrepreneurs – are related to getting adequate funding, access to the right networks, and finding the right information and advice. In the last few years, some private funds have realised that female founders are not always well served and there is a market gap when it comes to investing in women-led enterprises. This report examines the use of private funds to invest in female entrepreneurs in the European Union and Norway. In addition, it investigates the prevalence of public finance tools and public support schemes that effectively remove barriers and enable women to become competent entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Dienes, Christian & Susanne Schlepphorst (2020): Krisen von KMU: Herausforderung, Verlauf und Resilienz von frauen- und migrantengeführter Unternehmen. Bonn, IV, 58 S.

Abstract

"Diese Studie untersucht den Krisenprozess von kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen im Raum Frankfurt/Main. Dabei stehen vor allem die Herausforderungen migranten- und frauengeführter Unternehmen im Mittelpunkt. Auf Basis von insgesamt 527 befragten Unternehmen wurden 44,1 % als frauengeführt und 26,2 % als migrantengeführt identifiziert. Vier von zehn migrantengeführte Unternehmen haben in den letzten fünf Jahren eine Krise durchlaufen – ein höherer Anteil als nicht-migrantengeführte Unternehmen. Bei frauengeführten Unternehmen trat eine Krise bei drei von zehn Unternehmen auf, genauso häufig wie bei männergeführten Unternehmen. Im Großen und Ganzen bestehen zwischen migranten- und frauengeführten Unternehmen und ihren jeweiligen Pendants nur geringe Unterschiede. Dieser Befund spricht gegen gruppenspezifische Unterstützungsmaßnahmen. Allenfalls sollten Maßnahmen alle Unternehmerinnen und Unternehmer ansprechen, unabhängig von deren Herkunft oder Geschlecht." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Elliott, Catherine, Catherine Mavriplis & Hanan Anis (2020): An entrepreneurship education and peer mentoring program for women in STEM. Mentors’ experiences and perceptions of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intent. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 16, H. 1, S. 43-67. DOI:10.1007/s11365-019-00624-2

Abstract

"Women are underrepresented in STEM and in entrepreneurship but are rare in STEM entrepreneurship. A gender-sensitive entrepreneurship education and peer mentoring program for women engineering and computer science students was developed to provide classroom instruction, experiential learning, and support to a small group of students. This paper reports on the experiences of student peer mentors in the program, in terms of entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) and entrepreneurial intent (EI). Qualitative methods were adopted for this study. Student mentors were interviewed about their experiences and reported increased perceptions of entrepreneurial self-efficacy, a greater awareness of diversity and gender issues, and a changed perspective on problem solving and life in general. Student mentors reported a distinct interest in becoming an entrepreneur at “some time” in their lives, although not necessarily immediately upon graduation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Faria, João Ricardo, Juan Carlos Cuestas, Luis Gil-Alana & Estefania Mourelle (2020): Self-employment by gender in the EU: convergence and clusters. (Working paper / Universität Jaume I. Department of Economics 2020,22), Castellón de la Plana, 39 S.

Abstract

"This paper studies the convergence of self-employment by gender in the European Union, through tests for the order of integration and cluster analysis, in order to investigate the occurrence of two types of convergence: between genders and among European countries. The paper makes two contributions to the literature: 1) theoretically, it provides useful insights into the macroeconomic determinants of self-employment; 2) methodologically, it uses unit roots, fractional integration and cluster analysis to assess convergence. The empirical results point at mixed evidence of convergence, but with clear differences between the core and the periphery of Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Poggesi, Sara, Michela Mari, Luisa De Vita & Lene Foss (2020): Women entrepreneurship in STEM fields. Literature review and future research avenues. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 16, H. 1, S. 17-41. DOI:10.1007/s11365-019-00599-0

Abstract

"The aim of the paper is to explore the published management research on women entrepreneurs in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (also known as STEM) fields in order to offer a first, comprehensive state-of-the-art of this research. In doing so, a systematic literature review (SLR) of 32 papers has been undertaken. The results of this SLR show that the literature on this topic is still limited and fragmented. However, seeds have been sown for stimulating the theoretical debate and the empirical knowledge on these issues. Based on our analysis of these selected papers, we offer a vibrant research agenda for future developments." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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van Stel, André & Peter van der Zwan (2020): Analyzing the changing education distributions of solo self-employed workers and employer entrepreneurs in Europe. In: Small business economics, Jg. 55, H. 2, S. 429-445. DOI:10.1007/s11187-019-00243-9

Abstract

"Using macro-level data for 32 European countries, the present paper explores developments in the education distributions among solo self-employed workers and employer entrepreneurs in the non-agricultural economy over the period 1997–2014. Our dynamic analysis reveals that over this period, the number of solo self-employed workers, but particularly the high-educated solo self-employed, has increased considerably in Europe. This trend is even more pronounced for female solo self-employment. The education distribution of the solo self-employed is thus shifting quickly towards higher levels of education. Moreover, our static analysis based on 2014 reveals that, for the higher-developed countries within Europe (Western Europe including Scandinavia), solo self-employed and employer entrepreneurs are on average equally highly educated. We also find that the solo self-employed in Western Europe are considerably higher educated than their counterparts in the rest of Europe. In general, our results underline the rapidly increasing importance of, particularly high-educated, solo self-employed workers in modern, highly developed economies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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(2020): Geringe Anzahl weiblicher Gründer in Start-ups. Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten und der Fraktion der FDP (Drucksache 19/21698). (Verhandlungen des Deutschen Bundestages. Drucksachen 19/22015), 10 S.

Abstract

Die Bundesregierung antwortet auf die Anfrage der FDP-Fraktion zur Anzahl weiblicher Gründerinnen in Start-ups. (IAB-Doku)

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Cheraghi, Maryam, Kent Adsb øll Wickstr øm & Kim Klyver (2019): Life-course and entry to entrepreneurship. Embedded in gender and gender-egalitarianism. In: Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, Jg. 31, H. 3/4, S. 242-258. DOI:10.1080/08985626.2018.1551791

Abstract

"Prior research has suggested that low gender egalitarianism results in a gender gap in entrepreneurship participation, as it provides men and women with different opportunities and constraints. However, this research has primarily relied on an unrealistic assumption, namely that gender-related opportunities and constraints occur evenly throughout different life stages. This paper details an institutional life-course model that explains gender-related patterns in individuals' propensity to enter entrepreneurship and contingencies related to the level of gender-egalitarianism in society and individuals' life stages. We test our conceptual model on a unique integrated dataset from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor and the World Value Survey, encompassing a total of 672,781 adults in 71 countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hayduk, Iryna & Donald R. Williams (2019): Gender gap in self-employment. The role of risk attitudes. In: Economics of Transition and Institutional Change, Jg. 27, H. 3, S. 673-698. DOI:10.1111/ecot.12209

Abstract

"This paper examines the link between the willingness to take risk and the gender gap in self-employment in the transition economy, where for decades entrepreneurship was considered a crime. Using rich data on risk preferences and entrepreneurial activities, we show that male-female risk tolerance differential is the main determinant of the gender gap in self-employment in Ukraine. The decomposition results indicate that up to 38% of the gap can be attributed to this factor. Robustness tests support the validity of the baseline findings by suggesting that the results are not confounded by such factors as being unemployed before starting a current job, having a self-employed household member, or living in a relatively wealthy household before transitioning to self-employment." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Hirschfeld, Alexander, Janina Mütze & Jannis Gilde (2019): Female founders monitor 2019. Berlin, 55 S.

Abstract

"Seit 2018 erscheint in enger Zusammenarbeit mit Google for Startups und unserem Startup-Unternehmerinnen-Netzwerk der Female Founders Monitor (FFM): Der FFM bringt die Startup-Forschung voran, indem er die Bedeutung von Gründerinnen und ihre Herausforderungen in den Mittelpunkt rückt. Auf diese Weise werden die spezifischen Motive von Gründerinnen und ihr besonderer Beitrag im Startup-Ökosystem sichtbar. Dabei geht es nicht zuletzt darum, neue Impulse für die Stärkung von Frauen in Wirtschaft und Politik zu setzen. Der nun vorliegende Female Founders Monitor 2019 zeigt uns, wo wir aktuell stehen und was noch zu tun ist." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Kay, Rosemarie & Brigitte Günterberg (2019): Existenzgründungen von Frauen - aktuelle Entwicklungen. (Daten und Fakten / Institut für Mittelstandsforschung Bonn 24), Bonn, VI, 33 S.

Abstract

"Frauen sind seit jeher im Gründungsgeschehen in Deutschland unterrepräsentiert. Diese Unterrepräsentanz hat sich in jüngerer Vergangenheit wieder verstärkt. Analysen auf Basis der Gewerbeanzeigenstatistik zeigen, dass dies zum einen darauf zurückzuführen ist, dass die Gründungsneigung von Frauen noch stärker als die der Männer zurückgegangen ist. Zum anderen trägt ein weit überdurchschnittliches Ausmaß an Gründungsaktivitäten von Männern aus den EU-8- und EU-2-Beitrittsstaaten, mit dem ihre Landsfrauen nicht mithalten können, dazu bei. Die von Frauen gegründeten Unternehmen weisen teilweise andere Branchenschwerpunkte als die von Männern gegründeten auf. Sie sind zumeist im Dienstleistungssektor angesiedelt. Im Bereich der freiberuflichen Gründungen sind Frauen sogar leicht überrepräsentiert. Qualitative Unterschiede im Hinblick auf Größe und Innovationspotenzial bestehen zwischen von Frauen und Männern gegründeten gewerblichen Einzelunternehmen kaum (mehr)." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Meliou, Elina, Oliver Mallett & Shoshanna Rosenberg (2019): Being a self-employed older woman. From discrimination to activism. In: Work, employment and society, Jg. 33, H. 3, S. 529-538. DOI:10.1177/0950017018800235

Abstract

"This article presents an autobiographical account of an older woman's lived experience of self-employment. Little is known about women who experience ongoing self-employment into their 50s and beyond. Shoshanna's personal narrative describes her experiences and the challenges she has faced as she reflects upon her attempts to grow and sustain her business and the implications of ageism and gender inequality in laying a claim to entrepreneurship. The narrative proceeds to reflect on her activist work, as it is constructed through the creation of a social enterprise to support older people. Shoshanna's narrative provides valuable insights into the intersection of age and gender in self-employment moving from discrimination to active support." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ribes-Giner, G., I. Moya-Clemente, R. Cervelló-Royo & M. R. Perello-Marin (2019): Wellbeing indicators affecting female entrepreneurship in OECD countries. In: Quality & quantity, Jg. 53, H. 2, S. 915-933. DOI:10.1007/s11135-018-0796-4

Abstract

"The objective of this research is to know which wellbeing indicators, such as work-life balance, educational level, income or job security, are related to the rate of female entrepreneurship in 29 OECD countries. In addition, these countries have been classified according to the motivation of the entrepreneur either by necessity or by opportunity. The empiric study is focused on 29 OECD countries covering the different geographic areas (Western Europe, Central and Eastern Europe, Middle East, etc.) Due to the fact that the sample is relatively small, it is essential to use a selective approach when selecting the causal conditions. To this end, fsQCA is the most appropriate methodology for such a small data set. A total of 5 variables have been used: an independent variable (female TEA ratio), and four dependent variables (work life balance, educational level, sustainable household income and job security). Data measuring female TEA ratio have been obtained from Global Entrepreneur Monitor (GEM in Global report, 2015) data base, while data measuring wellbeing dimensions were taken from the Better Life Index (OECD in How's life? Measuring wellbeing, 2015. http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org). The results of this piece of research show that countries with high sustainable household income together with high level of education achieves high female entrepreneurship ratio with both, a good work-life balance (despite of a high unemployment probability), or a high labour-personal imbalance (in this latter, with a low probability of unemployment)." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Campos, Francisco, Michael Frese, Markus Goldstein, Leonardo Iacovone, Hillary C. Johnson, David McKenzie & Mona Mensmann (2018): Is personal initiative training a substitute or complement to the existing human capital of women? Results from a randomized trial in Togo. In: AEA papers and proceedings, Jg. 108, S. 256-261. DOI:10.1257/pandp.20181026

Abstract

"Personal initiative training - a psychology-based mindset training program - delivers lasting improvements for female business owners in Togo. Which types of women benefit most? Theories of dynamic complementarity would suggest training should work better for those with higher pre-existing human capital, but there are also reasons why existing human capital might inhibit training participation or substitute for its effects. We examine the heterogeneity in treatment impact according to different types of human capital. We find little evidence of either complementarities or substitutability, suggesting this new business training approach can work for a wide range of human capital levels." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Dutta, Nabamita & Sushanta Mallick (2018): Enabling women entrepreneurs. Exploring factors that mitigate the negative impact of fertility rates on female entrepreneurship. In: Kyklos, Jg. 71, H. 3, S. 402-432. DOI:10.1111/kykl.12175

Abstract

"In the wake of the global financial crisis that resulted in many business closures and given the long-term problem of population aging in advanced countries and poverty in low-income countries, it has become important to investigate whether new business formation by women entrepreneurs is a path to prosperity even when countries experience low fertility rates. Existing country studies suggest that female entrepreneurship can have favorable development outcomes through the channels of employment, innovation and welfare, but this paper undertakes a holistic cross-country analysis on the determinants of female entrepreneurship, exploring the role of fertility rates in affecting female entrepreneurial outcomes. We find that the impact of fertility rate is negative and significant in influencing entrepreneurship. But factors like greater tertiary enrollment of females and higher ratios of female to male labor force participation rates can offset the negative impact of fertility rate and in fact can make the impact positive. Additionally, greater access to informal finance makes female enrollment more effective in mitigating the negative impact of fertility rate." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Egeln, Jürgen, Sandra Gottschalk & Moritz Lubczyk (2018): Junge Unternehmen im Aufbruch zur digitalen Ökonomie. (IAB/ZEW-Gründungspanel 2018), Nürnberg, 9 S.

Abstract

"Das IAB/ZEW Gründungspanel ist eine für Deutschland repräsentative Stichprobe, die Informationen über Gründungen und junge Unternehmen in Deutschland beinhaltet. Die Daten sind geeignet, um Struktur und Entwicklung junger Unternehmen zu beschreiben und zu analysieren. Durch seinen Umfang und dem Detailgrad an Informationen stellt das IAB/ZEW Gründungspanel eine einzigartige Datenquelle dar und es wurde bereits in einer Vielzahl von Veröffentlichungen und Projekten eingesetzt, um Hintergrundinformationen zur Geschäftssituation und Dynamik junger Unternehmen und für die Entwicklung von Förderinstrumenten für Gründungen in Deutschland bereitzustellen. In diesem Report wird zunächst die aktuelle wirtschaftliche Situation junger Unternehmen beschrieben und danach werden Auswertungen zur Gründungsbeteiligung von Frauen, insbesondere der strategischen Ausrichtung ihrer Unternehmen, und Anwendungen von Digitalisierung in jungen Unternehmen vorgestellt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Hechavarría, Diana M., Siri A. Terjesen, Pekka Stenholm, Malin Brännback & Stefan Lång (2018): More than words: Do gendered linguistic structures widen the gender gap in entrepreneurial activity? In: Entrepreneurship, theory and practice, Jg. 42, H. 5, S. 797-817. DOI:10.1111/etap.12278

Abstract

"Leveraging linguistic relativity theory which suggests that language systems structure thought and action, we investigate the relationship between gendered linguistic structures and the persistent gender gap in early-stage entrepreneurial activity. We use country-level data from 105 countries in 2001 - 2015 with 55 different languages, and incorporate 32 controls covering a broad range of factors previously associated with entrepreneurial activity. We find that in countries where the dominant language's structure incorporates sex-based systems and gender-differentiated pronouns, there is a greater gender gap in entrepreneurial activity. Our results suggest that gendered linguistic structures reinforce gender stereotypes and discourage women's entry into entrepreneurship." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Hentschel, Tanja, Lisa Kristina Horvarth, Claudia Peus & Sabine Sczesny (2018): Kick-starting female careers. Attracting women to entrepreneurship programs. In: Journal of personnel psychology, Jg. 17, H. 4, S. 193-203. DOI:10.1027/1866-5888/a000209

Abstract

"Entrepreneurship programs often aim at increasing women's lower entrepreneurial activities. We investigate how advertisements for entrepreneurship programs can be designed to increase women's application intentions. Results of an experiment with 156 women showed that women indicate (1) lower self-ascribed fit to and interest in the program after viewing a male-typed image (compared to a gender-neutral or female-typed image) in the advertisement; and (2) lower self-ascribed fit to and interest in the program as well as lower application intentions if the German masculine linguistic form of the term 'entrepreneur' (compared to the gender-fair word pair 'female and male entrepreneur') is used in the recruitment advertisement. Women's reactions are most negative when both a male-typed image and the masculine linguistic form appear in the advertisement. Self-ascribed fit and program interest mediate the relationship of advertisement characteristics on application intentions." (Author's abstract, © 2018 Hogrefe Verlag) ((en))

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Iacovone, Leonardo, Gabriela Calderón & Cristina MacGregor (2018): Participating or not? Characteristics of female entrepreneurs participating in and completing an entrepreneurial training program. In: AEA papers and proceedings, Jg. 108, S. 246-251. DOI:10.1257/pandp.20181023

Abstract

"Who are the female entrepreneurs who end up starting and completing entrepreneurial training programs? In this paper, relying on a large set of baseline characteristics collected before the entrepreneurs are selected into an entrepreneurial training program in Mexico, we analyze how the women entrepreneurs who complete the training program differ from those who do not take it up, as well as how those who take it up but drop off before completing differ from those who do not even start. We uncover large differences in performance and non-cognitive skills but no differences in inputs used." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Marlow, Susan & Angela Martinez Dy (2018): Annual review article: Is it time to rethink the gender agenda in entrepreneurship research? In: International Small Business Journal, Jg. 36, H. 1, S. 3-22. DOI:10.1177/0266242617738321

Abstract

"This article develops a critique of contemporary approaches to analysing the impact of gender upon entrepreneurial propensity and activity. Since the 1990s, increasing attention has been afforded to the influence of gender on women's entrepreneurial behaviour; such analyses have highlighted an embedded masculinity within the entrepreneurial discourse which privileges men as normative entrepreneurial actors. While invaluable in revealing a prevailing masculine bias within entrepreneurship, this critique is bounded by positioning women as a proxy for the gendered subject. This is a potentially limiting analysis that does not fully recognise gender as a human property with myriad articulations enacted throughout entrepreneurial activity. To progress debate, we engage more deeply with the notion of gender as a multiplicity, exploring the implications of such for future studies of entrepreneurial activity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Meliou, Elina & Tim Edwards (2018): Relational practices and reflexivity: Exploring the responses of women entrepreneurs to changing household dynamics. In: International Small Business Journal, Jg. 36, H. 2, S. 149-168. DOI:10.1177/0266242617724858

Abstract

"This qualitative study explores how and why women, positioned as mothers, wives, or carers, navigate changing household dynamics, related to care and reproductive resources, and become entrepreneurial. Drawing on relational reflexivity, we show how women's embodied, intimate relations with important others in the household form the focal point for entrepreneurial activities and offer evidence of their entrepreneurial agency. Our analysis reveals the emergence of three relational practices that result in a new venture as the entrepreneurial response of women. We critically evaluate normative analyses on gender, entrepreneurship, and household." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ratten, Vanessa & Kayhan Tajeddini (2018): Women's entrepreneurship and internationalization: patterns and trends. In: The International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, Jg. 38, H. 9/10, S. 780-793. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-01-2018-0001

Abstract

"Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on women's entrepreneurship and internationalization in order to build an understanding about future trends. There is increasing interest in the role of women in entrepreneurship yet little research has been conducted about the link to internationalization patterns.
Design/methodology/approach
The literature is reviewed based on a systematic analysis of the words women, female, gender and internationalization.
Findings
Three main schools of thought around women's entrepreneurship and internationalization (philosophy, management and motivations) are then discussed. The analysis of literature and classification into main theories enables the building of new research around women's entrepreneurship and internationalization.
Originality/value
There is a pipeline of women intending to become entrepreneurs so this paper helps to understand how women entrepreneurs influence internationalization patterns and how to help support women in their business endeavors." (Author's abstract, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Saud Khan, Mohammad & Chelsea Rowlands (2018): Mumpreneurship in New Zealand. An exploratory investigation. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 38, H. 5/6, S. 459-473. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-08-2017-0106

Abstract

"Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to understand the challenges facing Mumpreneurs in New Zealand, a sub-group of female entrepreneurs. Research in this area will help to alleviate the challenges these individuals face on a daily basis, providing insights into the support systems, resources and policy initiatives these women may require to overcome various barriers.
Design/methodology/approach
A phenomenological qualitative approach guided the collection and analysis of the data. Eight semi-structured interviews were carried out with Mumpreneurs from New Zealand. An interpretivist approach was adopted to understand the challenges facing Mumpreneurs, creating an insightful understanding of the participants' experiences.
Findings
Findings reveal that the key challenges facing Mumpreneurs are time, growth, finance, stigma and achieving a family balance.
Research limitations/implications
Mumpreneurs in this study had all been in business for less than four years, so the results may not reflect the challenges facing Mumpreneurs at different stages of business ownership.
Originality/value
This study provides valuable insights into the nature of being a Mumpreneur, information that is often difficult to obtain, assisting mothers who are contemplating business ownership as well as existing Mumpreneurs, who may feel alone in their struggles for success." (Author's abstract, 䗏 Emerald Group) ((en))

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Sauer, Robert M. & Katharina H. Wiesemeyer (2018): Entrepreneurship and gender. Differential access to finance and divergent business value. In: Oxford review of economic policy, Jg. 34, H. 4, S. 584-596. DOI:10.1093/oxrep/gry017

Abstract

"In this paper we examine differences in access to finance and business value by gender. Using recent data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, instrumented linear probability models show that an increase in personal wealth substantially affects the probability of being a business owner only among females. This is indicative of differential access to finance by gender. Among business owners, fixed-effects regressions reveal that obtaining a bank loan increases mean total business value more for females than for males. Thus, possession of a bank loan appears to be a critical factor in explaining the business value gender gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Shinnar, Rachel S, Dan K Hsu, Benjamin C Powell & Haibo Zhou (2018): Entrepreneurial intentions and start-ups. Are women or men more likely to enact their intentions? In: International Small Business Journal, Jg. 36, H. 1, S. 60-80. DOI:10.1177/0266242617704277

Abstract

"While empirical data clearly show that women are underrepresented among entrepreneurs, the causes of this gap are entirely not clear. This article explores one potential cause: that women might be less likely to act on their entrepreneurial intentions. Building on Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour, we propose that intentions predict start-up behaviours, that is, that there is an intention - behaviour link. We then apply social role theory to propose that the intention - behaviour link is moderated by sex. Analysing data drawn from a sample of US-based management students during their first session in an introductory entrepreneurship course, at the end of the course, on their graduation and at a point up to three years after graduation, we find support for the intention - behaviour link and moderation of this link by sex. We identify additional contributions from our study and implications of our findings for addressing the sex gap in entrepreneurship." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Welsh, Dianne H.B. & Eugene Kaciak (2018): Women's entrepreneurship: A model of business-family interface and performance. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 14, H. 3, S. 627-637. DOI:10.1007/s11365-018-0507-6

Abstract

"Recently, there are renewed calls to develop new models addressing the intricacies of women-owned businesses and the women that head them. A new conceptual model of women's entrepreneurship that involves relationships between business-family-interface and firm performance is introduced in our paper. We test the model based on data from countries around the world and show that the model's links depend on the country context. As a result, we identify new boundary conditions to the domain of female entrepreneurship. Implications are discussed." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Adachi, Takanori & Takanori Hisada (2017): Gender differences in entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship. An empirical analysis. In: Small business economics, Jg. 48, H. 3, S. 447-486. DOI:10.1007/s11187-016-9793-y

Abstract

"This study examines the gender gap in start-up activities to determine whether it is family status or employment status that is responsible for the observed gender gap. We consider independent entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship as two different start-up modes: While intrapreneurship is conducted within an established organization, independent entrepreneurship is solely an independent activity. This study focuses on this fundamental distinction to identify the parameters of our empirical model. Using nationally representative US data, we find that the effects of being a part-time worker on the likelihood of becoming an independent entrepreneur differ across genders. The obtained results suggest similar findings for intrapreneurship, but in opposite directions. Furthermore, our decomposition results suggest that for both entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship, the gender differences in the employment-related variables are more significant than those in the family-related variables in affecting the observed gender gap negatively (for entrepreneurship) or positively (for intrapreneurship)." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Andersson Joona, Pernilla (2017): Are mothers of young children more likely to be self-employed? The case of Sweden. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 15, H. 1, S. 307-333. DOI:10.1007/s11150-016-9349-6

Abstract

"Previous studies, mostly from Anglo-Saxon countries, find a positive correlation between the presence of young children in the household and self-employment probabilities among women. This has been seen as an indication of women with young children choosing self-employment as a way of balancing work and family commitments. This paper studies the relationship between children and female self-employment in a country with family friendly policies and a generous welfare system: Sweden. The initial hypothesis is that we will not find evidence of a positive effect of children on self-employment among Swedish women since there are other institutions in place aiming at facilitating the combination of work and family. Using Swedish register data for the period 2004 - 2008 we do, however, find that the presence of young children increases the probability of choosing self-employment also among Swedish women. The effect is strongest for women with very young children, 0 - 3 years of age. These results also hold in a panel data model that takes individual unobserved heterogeneity into account. We also analyze time-use data and find, contrary to what has been found in many other countries, that self-employed women spend more, or as much, time on market work than wage-earning women. This raises doubts about whether women in Sweden chose self-employment as a way of balancing work and family commitments." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Braches, Birgit & Carole Elliott (2017): Articulating the entrepreneurship career. A study of German women entrepreneurs. In: International Small Business Journal, Jg. 35, H. 5, S. 535-557. DOI:10.1177/0266242616651921

Abstract

"This article examines how German women construct accounts of entrepreneurship as a gendered career. While becoming an entrepreneur was deemed preferable to not having a career, the interpretative repertoires emerging around entrepreneurial careers mainly referred to structural barriers. These included 'anti-child anti-woman' attitudes within German society or acceptance of the 'male game' due to gendered role expectations embedded within social institutions. Interpreted from a career perspective, the findings indicate that entrepreneurial careers do not meet women's expectations as they are subject to the same gendered constraints as those faced in waged employment. The article contributes to boundaryless career theory by illustrating how, even within a country of high employment rates and talent shortage, Germany's status as a conservative welfare state builds gender inequality into entrepreneurial women's lives to constrain career choices." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Deller, Steven C., Tessa Conroy & Philip Watson (2017): Women business owners. A source of stability during the great recession? In: Applied Economics, Jg. 49, H. 56, S. 5686-5697. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2017.1332745

Abstract

"During the period of the Great Recession, previous research has found that women-owned firms were less likely to lay-off workers than were firms owned by men. Given that the individual firm behaviour has a cumulative effect on regional economic performance, we expect greater stability across those regions with a larger share of women-owned and managed businesses. We test this hypothesis using US county data during the period from 2007 to 2013 at the US county level. Consistent with the findings of Matsa and Miller, our results suggest that regional economic stability increases with the share of women-owned and managed establishments." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hopp, Christian & Johannes Martin (2017): Does entrepreneurship pay for women and immigrants? A 30 year assessment of the socioeconomic impact of entrepreneurial activity in Germany. In: Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, Jg. 29, H. 5/6, S. 517-543. DOI:10.1080/08985626.2017.1299224

Abstract

"Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel from 1984 to 2012, we explore income effects of self-employment for females and migrants. Controlling for the selection into self-employment, we differentiate the overall earnings differential between the selfemployed and the wage-employed into an endowment effect (they are equipped with characteristics that positively affect earnings in either occupation) and a treatment effect (the income effect solely due to the decision for self-employment). We find that women exhibit both a lower treatment effect and a lower endowment effect than men. Migrants benefit much more from entrepreneurial activities than Germans, having a significantly higher treatment effect. Among the countries of origin, Turkish migrants benefit the most from their selfemployment decision, while southern Europeans exhibit the lowest income relevant skills." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Tur-Porcar, Ana, Alicia Mas-Tur & José Antonio Belso (2017): Barriers to women entrepreneurship. Different methods, different results? In: Quality and Quantity. International Journal of Methodology, Jg. 51, H. 5, S. 2019-2034. DOI:10.1007/s11135-016-0343-0

Abstract

"Building on research by Akehurst et al. (Serv Ind J 32:2489 - 2505, 2012), this study analysed internal and external factors in women entrepreneurship and linked these factors to the barriers that women face when starting businesses. To do so, two contrasting statistical techniques were used: PLS and QCA. After analysing results from each of these techniques, we observed that family duties and difficulties in obtaining financing (both internal and external) were the main factors related to barriers faced by women entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Abstract

"The Policy Brief on Women's Entrepreneurship explores the gender gap in entrepreneurship, the differences between male- and female-owned businesses, and the unique challenges that female entrepreneurs face when it comes to starting a business." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brixy, Udo, Lisa Schrüfer, Rolf Sternberg & Johannes von Bloh (2016): Unternehmensgründungen in einer alternden Gesellschaft: Ungenutzte Potenziale bei Frauen und Älteren. (IAB-Kurzbericht 27/2016), Nürnberg, 8 S.

Abstract

"Die deutsche Gesellschaft altert, auch Zuwanderung und der aktuelle Geburtenzuwachs können diesen Trend nicht aufhalten. Das Alter, in dem jemand bevorzugt ein Unternehmen gründet, bleibt dagegen konstant. Ergebnisse der jährlichen Befragungen des 'Global Entrepreneurship Monitors' in Deutschland zeigen, dass es unter den Jüngeren nach wie vor deutlich mehr Gründer gibt als unter den Älteren. Dieser an sich erwartbare Befund weist auf das Risiko hin, dass in Deutschland mit seiner stetig alternden Gesellschaft zunehmend weniger Unternehmen gegründet werden. Dies wiederum gefährdet die Innovationskraft der deutschen Wirtschaft." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Ettl, Kerstin, Friederike Welter & Leona Achtenhagen (2016): "Das 21. Jahrhundert ist weiblich". Unternehmerinnen in der Presse. (IfM-Materialien 249), Bonn, 37 S.

Abstract

"Die vorliegende Studie untersucht die Presseberichterstattung über Unternehmerinnen insbesondere mit Blick darauf, welches Bild von Unternehmerinnentum in den Presseberichten vermittelt wird. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Artikel in sechs ausgewählten überregionalen deutschen Tageszeitungen im Zeitraum 2004-2013, sowie ausgewählte Artikel aus schwedischen Printmedien ausgewertet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Berichterstattung zunehmend vielfältiger wird und die Sichtbarkeit von Unternehmerinnen zunimmt. Allerdings werden auch heute noch klassische Stereotype und traditionelle Rollenbilder durch die Berichterstattung transportiert." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Lewellyn, Krista B. & Maureen I. Muller-Kahle (2016): A configurational approach to understanding gender differences in entrepreneurial activity. A fuzzy set analysis of 40 countries. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 12, H. 3, S. 765-790. DOI:10.1007/s11365-015-0366-3

Abstract

"This paper explores entrepreneurial activity for men and women across 40 countries. Building on research grounded in social cognitive and institutional theories, we propose a configurational approach to explore how effects of different causal conditions are interdependent in explaining gender specific entrepreneurial activity. Using fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis, we find that no one causal element is sufficient for promoting entrepreneurial activity. Instead micro-level attributes of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and opportunity recognition in combination with macro-level business environment formal institutions and national culture create configurations of conditions that lead to high levels of entrepreneurial activity amongst men and women. Moreover, the causal factors configure in different ways for male and female entrepreneurs. This study demonstrates the value of using a configurational analytical technique to explore together the micro- and macro- complexities of what drives men and women around the world to engage in entrepreneurial activity." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Link, Albert N. & Derek R. Strong (2016): Gender and Entrepreneurship. An Annotated Bibliography. In: Foundations and trends in entrepreneurship, Jg. 12, H. 4-5, S. 1-156. DOI:10.1561/0300000068

Abstract

"Entrepreneurship, from a gender perspective, is not only an academic topic of growing interest but also a topic of policy importance across many nations. In an effort to describe the scope of scholarly inquiry into this topic, we have constructed an annotated bibliography of 563 scholarly contributions covering the period 1979 to the present. These contributions were selected systematically, and they represent 16 different categories of research." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Markussen, Simen & Knut Roed (2016): Gendered entrepreneurship networks. (IZA discussion paper 9984), Bonn, 26 S.

Abstract

"In virtually all industrialized countries, women are underrepresented in entrepreneurship, and the gender gap exhibits a remarkable persistence. We examine one particular source of persistence, namely the prevalence of gendered networks and associated peer effects. We study how early career entrepreneurship is affected by existing entrepreneurship among neighbors, family members, and recent schoolmates. Based on an instrumental variables strategy, we identify strong peer effects. While men are more influenced by other men, women are more influenced by other women. We estimate that differences between male and female peer groups explain approximately half of the gender gap in early career entrepreneurship." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Müller, Klaus & Alexander Erlei (2016): Frauen gehen in Führung. Frauen als Unternehmerinnen im Handwerk, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Handwerkskammerbezirks Düsseldorf. (Göttinger Beiträge zur Handwerksforschung 09), Göttingen, 30 S. DOI:10.3249/2364-3897-gbh-9

Abstract

"Die Kurzstudie, die im Auftrag der Handwerkskammer Düsseldorf erstellt worden ist, untersucht die Rolle von Frauen als Inhaberinnen im Handwerk. Zwar hat sich in den letzten Jahren der Frauenanteil im Handwerk etwas erhöht, so dass derzeit etwa jeder vierte Handwerksbetrieb von einer Frau geleitet wird, dieser Anteil ist aber immer noch niedriger als in der Gesamtwirtschaft. Der Grund liegt primär darin, dass Frauen eher in Dienstleistungsbranchen gründen, die im Handwerk unterrepräsentiert sind. Darüber hinaus stehen Frauen eher kleineren Betrieben vor und üben ihre Selbstständigkeit relativ häufig in Teilzeit oder im Nebenerwerb aus. So können Beruf und Familie einerseits besser miteinander vereinbart werden; andererseits fällt das Einkommen geringer aus. Bei Frauen ist die Risikobereitschaft geringer; sie gründen daher sehr viel vorsichtiger, wobei sie viel häufiger als Männer eine Doppelbelastung von Familie und Beruf auf sich nehmen. Hier kommt den traditionellen Rollenbildern immer noch ein hoher Stellenwert zu. Am Ende des Kurzgutachtens werden einige Handlungsempfehlungen aufgezeigt, wie Frauen vermehrt für eine Selbstständigkeit im Handwerk interessiert werden können. In erster Linie sind die Rollenbilder aufzubrechen, um zu zeigen, dass im männerdominierten Handwerk auch Inhaberinnen Erfolg haben können. Darüber hinaus ist mit speziellen Informationsangeboten auf das besondere Gründungsverhalten von Frauen einzugehen. Als letztes ist eine Vernetzung zu fördern, damit Frauen bei ihren Gründungsplänen den notwendigen Rückhalt bekommen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Patrick, Carlianne, Heather Stephens & Amanda Weinstein (2016): Where are all the self-employed women? Push and pull factors influencing female labor market decisions. In: Small business economics, Jg. 46, H. 3, S. 365-390. DOI:10.1007/s11187-015-9697-2

Abstract

"Previous research focuses on factors that influence self-employment participation, in part because entrepreneurship has been associated with economic growth. This literature has tended to focus only on men or the comparison of women to men, while ignoring substantial heterogeneity in employment decisions among women. By investigating the impact of individual, household, and local economic and cultural characteristics on the labor market outcomes of different groups of women, we get a more comprehensive picture of their self-employment decision. Recognizing self-employment as one of multiple labor market choices, we use multinomial logit and two confidential, geocoded micro-level datasets to study women's career choices in urban areas. We find that the effects of various push and pull factors differ between married and unmarried women. In particular, more progressive gender attitudes pull married women into self-employment, while household burdens associated with children push them into self-employment. For unmarried women, the local business climate and individual characteristics have the strongest influence. In both cases, the motivations for women are quite different than men." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Poggesi, Sara, Michela Mari & Luisa De Vita (2016): What's new in female entrepreneurship research? Answers from the literature. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 12, H. 3, S. 735-764. DOI:10.1007/s11365-015-0364-5

Abstract

"Female entrepreneurship to date represents a key component of the business sector worldwide as, in 2012 more than 187 million out of 400 million entrepreneurs were women (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2013). In academia the gender factor in entrepreneurship emerged in the late 1970s Schwartz (Journal of Contemporary Business, 5(1), 47 - 76, 1976) and especially since the beginning of the new millennium a substantial growth in the investigation of this topic has been registered. Thus, the time has come to systematize the academic progress on this issue and to reflect on future research directions in order to gain deeper insights into the female entrepreneurship domain. In this vein, our paper aims to enrich the conversation on female entrepreneurship by reviewing 248 papers published in the last 14 years. In doing so, we identify and analyze the new insights that have emerged in the literature from both a managerial and a sociological perspective, thus responding to the numerous calls for a more interdisciplinary approach to the study of this topic." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Simoes, Nadia, Nuno Crespo & Sandrina B. Moreira (2016): Individual determinants of self-employment entry. What do we really know? In: Journal of Economic Surveys, Jg. 30, H. 4, S. 783-806. DOI:10.1111/joes.12111

Abstract

"The analysis of the decision to enter into self-employment is a hot topic in the economic literature. Among the elements that most directly influence this decision, individual factors are central. This study produces a comprehensive survey of the impact of these factors, covering both the theoretical arguments and the main conclusions emerging from the empirical studies. We analyze 12 critical determinant factors of the entry into self-employment grouped into seven categories: (1) basic individual characteristics (gender, age, marital status, and children); (2) family background (parents and spouse); (3) personality characteristics; (4) human capital (education and experience); (5) health condition; (6) nationality and ethnicity; and (7) access to financial resources. While for some of the factors solid conclusions can be found, for others additional research is still needed in order to shed further light on their influence." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Ahl, Helene & Teresa Nelson (2015): How policy positions women entrepreneurs. A comparative analysis of state discourse in Sweden and the United States. In: Journal of business venturing, Jg. 30, H. 2, S. 273-291. DOI:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.08.002

Abstract

"This research compares the positioning of women entrepreneurs through entrepreneurship policy over two decades (1989 - 2012) in Sweden and the United States. Given Sweden's uniquely familyfriendly welfare state, we could expect different results, yet in both countries we find a legacy of discourse subordinating women's entrepreneurship to other goals (i.e., economic growth) and a positioning of women as 'other', reinforcing a dialogue of women's inadequacy or extraordinariness without taking full account of the conditions shaping women's work experience. From this analysis we derive a conceptual schematic of assumptions presented through the discourse, aligning and distinguishing the U.S. and Swedish approaches." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Anxo, Dominique & Thomas Ericson (2015): Self-employment and parental leave. In: Small business economics, Jg. 45, H. 4, S. 751-770. DOI:10.1007/s11187-015-9669-6

Abstract

"The main objective of this paper is to analyse the extent to which self-employment in Sweden has an impact on the use of parental leave. Our results show that during the child's first 2 years, Swedish female self-employed use on average 46 fewer days of parental leave (15 %) than female wage earners, while male self-employed use on average 27 fewer days of parental leave (71 %) than their wage earner counterparts. We argue that the shorter average duration of parental leave among male self-employed is due both to relatively higher costs of absence and to a parental leave participation effect where some male self-employed with high performance-related income do not take parental leave at all. Given that all mothers take parental leave independently of employment status, we do not find any significant parental leave participation effect for female self-employed. Instead, we find a significant employment selection effect where women with high performance-related income choose self-employment explaining the shorter average duration of parental leave among female self-employed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brixy, Udo, Rolf Sternberg & Arne Vorderwülbecke (2015): Selbstständigkeit in Ost- und Westdeutschland: Gründungen sind selten Frauensache. (IAB-Kurzbericht 10/2015), Nürnberg, 7 S.

Abstract

"Unternehmensgründungen sind eine wichtige Quelle des wirtschaftlichen Wachstums. Gerade in ökonomisch hochentwickelten Staaten spielen Neugründungen eine bedeutende Rolle für die kommerzielle Verwertung von Innovationen. Damit wird die Produktivität positiv beeinflusst und der strukturelle Wandel befördert. Deshalb ist es nicht trivial, wenn Frauen unter den Gründern dauerhaft unterrepräsentiert sind. Abgesehen von nicht ausgeschöpften persönlichen Entwicklungschancen verzichten Volkswirtschaften dadurch auf unternehmerische Potenziale. Dennoch sind Unternehmensgründungen nach wie vor eine männliche Domäne. Frauen gründen in fast allen europäischen Ländern - so auch in Deutschland - seltener als Männer." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Bögenhold, Dieter & Uwe Fachinger (2015): Unternehmerinnen: Kontextuelle Faktoren der Zunahme von weiblicher Selbständigkeit und Entrepreneurship. In: Sozialer Fortschritt, Jg. 64, H. 9/10, S. 227-233. DOI:10.3790/sfo.64.9-10.227

Abstract

"Der Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit der beruflichen Selbständigkeit von Frauen. Dabei wird konzeptuell auf die Auswertung diverser theoretischer Beiträge aus dem internationalen Raum rekurriert, während der empirische Fokus auf Deutschland liegt. Die theoretisch-konzeptuelle Analyse zeigt konkurrierende Zugänge zum Umgang mit geschlechtsspezifischen Arbeitsmarktdisparitäten auf und verdeutlicht, dass weibliche Selbständigkeit sehr unterschiedlichen und zum Teil entgegengesetzten Logiken folgt. Die Auswertungen der Daten des Mikrozensus verweisen auf eine Koinzidenz des Trends in Richtung einer von Dienstleistungen geprägten Ökonomie und stark steigender Raten von weiblicher Selbständigkeit, dabei besonders ausgeprägt im Bereich von Solo-Selbständigkeit. Neben der Tertiarisierung als Push-Faktor auf der Makro-Ebene zeigt sich auf der Mikro-Ebene, dass verschiedene soziale Rationalitäten für die Hinwendung zu einer selbständig-beruflichen Tätigkeit Mischformen eingehen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Bönte, Werner (2015): Gender differences in competitive preferences. New cross-country empirical evidence. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 22, H. 1, S. 71-75. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2014.927560

Abstract

"This article provides new empirical evidence on gender differences in competitive preferences using a representative data set of more than 25 000 individuals from 36 countries. The empirical results show that the gender differences in competitive preferences are statistically significant in almost all countries, with women having, on average, a lower preference for competitive situations than men. Although relatively substantial in most countries, the magnitude of gender differences varies considerably between countries. Results of a regression analysis suggest that the gender differences persist even when controlling for a number of potentially relevant variables. Furthermore, gender differences among adult men and women are hardly affected by the stage of life cycle." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bührmann, Andrea D. (2015): Diversifizierungsprozesse unternehmerischer Akteure und ihre (möglichen) Folgen. In: Sozialer Fortschritt, Jg. 64, H. 9/10, S. 215-220. DOI:10.3790/sfo.64.9-10.215

Abstract

"Aktuell wird intensiv und engagiert über eine Diversifizierung der Erwerbstätigen (auch) in Deutschland diskutiert. Allerdings konzentriert man sich dabei allzu oft auf die Gruppe der abhängig Beschäftigten. Neuere Studien zeigen indes, dass immer mehr Menschen unternehmerisch aktiv werden und sich dabei sowohl die unternehmerischen Akteure als auch ihrer Aktivitäten diversifizieren: So gründen nicht mehr nur gut ausgebildete Männer ohne Migrationshintergrund ein Unternehmen, um möglichst schnell ein erfolgreiches Unternehmenswachstum zu generieren, sondern auch immer mehr Frauen und Personen mit Migrationshintergrund werden in Teilzeit oder im Nebenerwerb mehr oder minder erfolgreich unternehmerisch aktiv. Der Beitrag fragt nach den sozialpolitischen Herausforderungen Konsequenzen einer solchen 'Verunternehmerung des Arbeitens'." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Caliendo, Marco, Frank Fossen, Alexander Kritikos & Miriam Wetter (2015): The gender gap in entrepreneurship. Not just a matter of personality. In: CESIfo Economic Studies, Jg. 61, H. 1, S. 202-238. DOI:10.1093/cesifo/ifu023

Abstract

"Why do entrepreneurship rates differ so markedly by gender? Using data from a large representative German household panel, we investigate to what extent personality traits, human capital, and the employment history influence the start-up decision and can explain the gender gap in entrepreneurship. Applying a decomposition analysis, we observe that the higher risk aversion among women explains a large share of the entrepreneurial gender gap. We also find an education effect contributing to the gender difference. In contrast, the Big Five model and the current employment state have effects in the opposite direction, meaning that the gender gap in entrepreneurial entry would be even larger if women had the same scores and the same employment status as men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Caliendo, Marco & Steffen Künn (2015): Getting back into the labor market. The effects of start-up subsidies for unemployed females. In: Journal of population economics, Jg. 28, H. 4, S. 1005-1043. DOI:10.1007/s00148-015-0540-5

Abstract

"Low female labor market participation is a problem many developed countries have to face. Beside activating inactive women, one possible solution is to support the re-integration of unemployed women. Due to female-specific labor market constraints (preferences for flexible working hours, discrimination), this is a difficult task, and the question arises whether active labor market policies (ALMP) are an appropriate tool to help. It has been shown that the effectiveness of traditional (ALMP) programs - which focus on the integration in dependent (potentially inflexible) employment - is positive but limited. At the same time, recent evidence for Austria shows that these programs reduce fertility which might be judged unfavorable from a societal perspective. Promoting self-employment among unemployed women might therefore be a promising alternative. Starting their own business might give women more independence and flexibility to reconcile work and family and increase labor market participation. Based on long-term informative data, we find that start-up programs persistently integrate former unemployed women into the labor market, and the impact on fertility is less detrimental than for traditional ALMP programs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Goktan, A. Banu & Vishal K. Gupta (2015): Sex, gender, and individual entrepreneurial orientation. Evidence from four countries. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 11, H. 1, S. 95-112. DOI:10.1007/s11365-013-0278-z

Abstract

"The purpose of the present study is to examine the role of biological sex and gender identity in relation to individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO). Data was collected in the United States, Hong Kong, India, and Turkey. Results suggest that IEO is higher among men and that among both males and females both masculinity and femininity are positively related to IEO. Finally, results show that androgynous identity contributes more to IEO than masculine, feminine or undifferentiated gender identities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hoffmann, Anders, Martin Junge & Nikolaj Malchow-Møller (2015): Running in the family: Parental role models in entrepreneurship. In: Small business economics, Jg. 44, H. 1, S. 79-104. DOI:10.1007/s11187-014-9586-0

Abstract

"It is well established that children of self-employed parents are more likely to become self-employed themselves, but the reasons are still hotly debated. Using Danish register data, we investigate the importance and workings of parental role models for the probability of becoming self-employed. We find that the effect of a self-employed father (mother) is much higher for males (females). These results are statistically and economically very significant, and they survive when we control for parental wealth and work experience from the parents' firms and when we exclude cases where the offspring takes over the family business. This points to a strong role for parental role models in explaining why self-employment runs in the family." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Konietzko, Thorsten (2015): Self-employed individuals, time use, and earnings. In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 36, H. 1, S. 64-83. DOI:10.1007/s10834-014-9411-6

Abstract

"Auf Grundlage zweier deutscher Datensätze untersucht diese Studie die Zeitallokation von selbständigen Frauen und Männern im Vergleich zu abhängig beschäftigten Frauen und Männern sowie den Einfluss der Hausarbeitszeit auf die Verdienste der Selbständigen. Im Gegensatz zu abhängig Beschäftigten verwenden selbständige Frauen mehr Zeit für Hausarbeit, während selbständige Männer mehr Zeit für Marktarbeit aufwenden. Sowohl die deskriptiven Analysen als auch gepoolte OLS Einkommensregressionen zeigen einen negativen Einfluss der Hausarbeitszeit auf die Einkommen der Selbständigen auf. Im Gegensatz dazu wird in den Fixed-Effekts-Einkommensschätzungen nur beim Monatslohn selbständiger Männer ein negativer Zusammenhang gefunden. Dieser Effekt verschwindet nach einer Kontrolle auf potentielle Endogenität mittels Instrumentenvariablen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)