Zitatform

Bento, Pedro (2025): Female entrepreneurship in the U.S. 1982 - 2012: Implications for welfare and aggregate output. In: Journal of monetary economics, Jg. 149. DOI:10.1016/j.jmoneco.2024.103676

Abstract

"The number of women-owned businesses in the U.S. has soared over the last several decades. In 1982 less than 13 percent of businesses were majority-owned by women. By 2012 this number reached 40 percent. This and other evidence suggests that women have faced significant barriers to running businesses. Interpreted through the lens of a model of entrepreneurship, observed trends imply substantial declines in several barriers facing female entrepreneurs. Together, these changes account for almost 4 percent of observed growth in aggregate output and a 3 percent increase in workers’ consumption-equivalent welfare since 1982. By 2012, lower barriers increased the welfare of female entrepreneurs by a dramatic 116 percent, while lowering the welfare of male entrepreneurs by 5 percent. These impacts are in addition to any gains to workers from declining labor-market barriers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))

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Cannavale, Chiara, Giorgia Rivieccio, Lorenza Claudio & Iman Zohoorian Nadali (2025): The translation of latent into actual entrepreneurship: the impact of GE. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 21, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01017-w

Abstract

"This study seeks to answer two questions: Is latent entrepreneurship a predictor of entrepreneurial activity? Does Gender Egalitarianism affect the translation of latent into actual entrepreneurship? We developed a quantitative analysis based on a regression with unbalanced panel data covering the 2002–2020 period across 42 countries. We employed data from Global Entrepreneurship Monitor to investigate latent entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial activity. We considered values lagged by three years for latent entrepreneurship and actual data for entrepreneurial activity. We took cultural data from the GLOBE Project to measure Gender Egalitarianism across countries and used both “as is” (Gender Egalitarianism Practices) and “should be” (Gender Egalitarianism Values) scores. Findings indicate that Gender Egalitarianism Values and Gender Egalitarianism Practices mainly have a curvilinear effect on entrepreneurial activity, showing an inverted U-shape relationship. The main contribution is Gender Egalitarianism’s non-linear moderating role in the relationship between latent and actual entrepreneurship: higher Gender Egalitarianism Values and Gender Egalitarianism Practices significantly reduce the effect of latent entrepreneurship on entrepreneurial activity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hirschfeld, Alexander, Jannis Gilde, Vanusch Walk, Franziska Teubert & Clara Stellbrink (2025): Female Founders Monitor 2025. 26 S. DOI:10.11586/2025011

Abstract

"Aktuell braucht Deutschland vor allem eins: mehr Innvoation - und dafür braucht es mehr Startups. Mit frischen Ideen und unternehmerischem Drive machen sie unsere Wirtschaft zukunftsfest und nutzen Chancen in neuen Feldern, wie der Künstlichen Intelligenz." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Skare, Marinko, Beáta Gavurová & Viliam Kovac (2025): Female entrepreneurship involvement in digital transformation process through perspective of gender employment and pay gaps. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 21, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01060-7

Abstract

"The main goal of the study is to investigate and to quantify the relations between the gender aspects and the processes of digital transformation in a relation to the eco-innovation processes. The processes of digital transformation in enterprises bring the changes of business strategies, processes, management, principles, approaches, and methods. A change in the roles of the managerial and other work positions, which can have an impact on efficiency of engaged processes in enterprises, is associated with them. The actual research studies aimed at investigating the female role in the leadership position have been focused on business processes mainly, which the effect of leadership is not difficult to quantify within. The procedures of digital transformation and the eco-innovation processes within them bring new dimension of the managerial work and a need for several technical, economic, and personal changes. According to the examined literature review, the three research questions are formulated, whilst each one is related to the particular examined field – the gender employment gap, the gender pay gap, and the female entrepreneurship participation. The applied regression analysis with the testing phase serves to analyse the data gathered. The carried-out analysis provides the interesting finding also from a geographical view. The gender employment gap in its different forms is confirmed by the outcomes of the constructed panel regression models in a majority of the explored cases. The gender pay gap is not seen as statistically significant. The female entrepreneurship participation represents the strongest point and it is confirmed absolutely at all. The study outcomes will support the creation of active environmental and innovation policies at the national and international level. Investigating gender diversity and its impact on the eco-innovation processes will enable the creation of mechanisms for eliminating the gender disparities, improving environmental reputation, and for effective decision-making processes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Uebbing, Lina, Marius Claus Wehner, Alba Yela Aránega & José Manuel Guaita Martínez (2025): Make it or leave it?– An exploration of post-foundation dynamics among female entrepreneurs. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 21, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01065-2

Abstract

"Female entrepreneurs encounter several barriers before starting a business. The prevalent association of entrepreneurship with masculine stereotypes in many countries is a contributing factor as to why fewer women pursue entrepreneurial ventures. Yet our understanding of whether these barriers vanish once females have founded a new business remains limited. To shed more light on women’s experiences, we conducted 32 semi-structured interviews to investigate German female entrepreneurs’ perceptions of challenges post-foundation. Our findings show that female entrepreneurs are still affected by stereotypes of their private and professional surroundings after their business has launched. The main reasons for exiting their businesses are experienced role conflicts that may result in mental health issues. Based on these findings, we developed a framework illustrating how women navigate through the entrepreneurial lifecycle, encountering increased role incongruity as they become more deeply immersed in the entrepreneurial environment. Understanding the factors through which women decide about their future paths is important for researchers and practitioners to support female entrepreneurs after new business startup. We conclude that sustained private and professional as well as instrumental and non-instrumental support during the early stages after starting a new venture may help sustain the share of female entrepreneurs and reduce the share of females resigning and going into other labor." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Voß, Julia, Benjamin Butz & Kerstin Ettl (2025): What’s driving them? A qualitative approach to explore women entrepreneurs’ motivations in STEM. In: International journal of gender and entrepreneurship, Jg. 17, H. 2, S. 215-244. DOI:10.1108/ijge-09-2023-0241

Abstract

"Purpose: Entrepreneurship and the disciplines of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) are considered important drivers of innovation. At the same time, the representation of women entrepreneurs in STEM remains low. Despite this disparity, a number of women still choose to start ventures and persist in pursuing their innovations in STEM. This study aims to examine the motivational factors that drive women entrepreneurs to approach and consistently pursue their innovations and ventures in STEM. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on the concept of the heterogeneity of motivational factors (Graham and Bonner, 2022) and Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 2001; Wood and Bandura, 1989), 24 semi-structured interviews were conducted with women entrepreneurs in STEM. This approach allowed for an in-depth exploration of the heterogeneous motivational factors influencing women entrepreneurs in STEM. Findings The motivations of women entrepreneurs in STEM are multifaceted, interrelated and dynamic. They encompass personal and cognitive, behavioral and environmental factors and partly change over time. This study reveals two levels of heterogeneity: the heterogeneity of women entrepreneurs’ entrepreneurial motivations, and the within-context heterogeneity of women entrepreneurs in STEM themselves. Originality/value This study addresses the need for a deeper understanding of women entrepreneurs in STEM. By focusing on nuanced aspects of entrepreneurial motivations that are often overlooked in the existing literature, this research provides valuable insights and discusses implications for theory, policy and education." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Boddington, Monique Ingrid (2024): Reshaping gendered norms in entrepreneurship: Incorporating gender identity and entrepreneurial practice. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 31, H. 2, S. 378-398. DOI:10.1111/gwao.13075

Abstract

"This paper presents a practice theoretical conception of gender in entrepreneurship, emphasizing the potential of reflexivity and collective agency to reshape gendered norms. While the literature recognizes the fluidity of gender and its intersectional nature, it often overlooks how social phenomena are produced and relate to each other. The main aim of this is to show, not just how, gendered norms of entrepreneurial practice inhibit practice (which has been extensively covered) but how identity and the individualized practice of entrepreneurship, can shift gendered norms of entrepreneurial practice. Drawing upon the theories of Pierre Bourdieu and Margaret Archer, this paper proposes a more integrative approach to identity and gendered norms, embedded within a social realist approach. The author highlights the need for structural renegotiation in entrepreneurship through reflexivity. Given how norms self‐naturalize, individual practice of diverse gendered practices in entrepreneurship is not enough to create long‐term sustainable change and support for diversegendered practices. Instead, this paper proposes an integrative approach to identity and gendered norms, emphasizing the potential of individuals to shift structural norms, through collective action. This study suggests that a more balanced understanding of the interplay between context and identity can assist in the design of support for non‐traditional gendered practices and provide new insights into how gendered norms impact entrepreneurial activity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Bonaparte, Yosef, Frank J. Fabozzi, David Koslowsky & Madhavan Parthasarathy (2024): The gender wage gap and its effect on women's entrepreneurship. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 56, H. 38, S. 4563-4575. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2023.2212968

Abstract

"We demonstrate an inverse relationship between women’s financial equality status with men (as proxied by gender wage gap), and women’s entrepreneurship participation at the U.S. state level. Gender wage gap affects women’s opportunity cost of the entrepreneurship decision. In states where women’s status is lower, women’s opportunity cost of becoming an entrepreneur is lower because their wages are lower, increasing women’s entrepreneurship participation. We also demonstrate that states’ demographics are important factors, but only education is specific to women. Collectively, we find that women choose to be entrepreneurial when their status is lower, which reflects women’s economic resiliency." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Coates, Dermot & Martina Lawless (2024): Entrepreneur characteristics and determinants of self-employment across Europe. (ESRI working paper / Economic and Social Research Institute 772), Dublin, 38 S.

Abstract

"Entrepreneurship is a key driver of jobs and innovation. This paper examines the prevalence of entrepreneurship across Europe and characteristics of those who become entrepreneurs. We place a particular focus on the distinction between opportunity and necessity motivations for becoming self-employed. The results in this paper find that one of the most significant barriers to entrepreneurship in Europe is lack of access to finance although this is noticeably lower in Ireland. Examining the characteristics of the self-employed, we find that participation by women and those in younger age cohorts (19-24 and 25-29) are significantly lower than for other groups. The results also suggest that considerations related to personal finances are amongst the main difficulties encountered in being selfemployed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cowling, Marc & Ondřej Dvouletý (2024): When a non-gendered start-up policy delivers for female entrepreneurs: Evidence from the UK start-up loan scheme. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 20, H. 2, S. 1089-1109. DOI:10.1007/s11365-023-00934-6

Abstract

"This research contributes to the state of knowledge on gender aspects of entrepreneurship and SME-promoting policies from the perspective of the United Kingdom. In this paper, we draw upon the largest public policy intervention aimed explicitly at fostering new business start-ups, the Start-Up Loan (SUL) scheme. Since its inception in 2012 until the present day, question whether female start-up entrepreneurs were over-represented in terms of scheme participation, which would be the case if the barriers they face when seeking to start a new business are greater than their male peers. First, the study exploits available secondary data from the Eurostat and Global Entrepreneurship Monitor to determine the participation of females in entrepreneurship during the last decades. Second, we exploit the administrative data of the participants of the SUL scheme between 2012 and 2022 (N = 98,026). Methodologically, the study relies on summary statistical tools and estimation of the Cox proportional hazard models, predicting the loan default rates of the supported individuals across genders. With an average female representation of 40% over the last decade on the SUL scheme, which is significantly higher than in the UK business population, a very positive and unintended consequence of the scheme is that tens of thousands of female entrepreneurs were given the support that, in its absence, may have prevented or discouraged them from starting their new business. Furthermore, females participating in the SUL scheme have lower hazard rates than males." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Gomez, Claudia, B. Yasanthi Perera & Lucas M. Engelhardt (2024): The distinct nature of U.S. based female immigrant entrepreneurs. In: Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, Jg. 36, H. 3-4, S. 312-340. DOI:10.1080/08985626.2023.2264803

Abstract

"Despite contributing to host country economies, there is limited examination of self-employed female immigrants in the literature. While human, social, and financial capital are important for entrepreneurship in general, given immigrant women's intersectional identities, the potential exists for these factors to affect them differently. This study uses US data obtained from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) to empirically test the relationship of human, social, and financial capital on female immigrants self-employment and compares these relationships with US-born women and male immigrants. While the results are mixed, overall, the findings suggest that female immigrants odds of being self-employed, in relation to their levels of human, social, and financial capital, are influenced to a greater extent by their immigrant identity than their gender identity. Implications for future research and public policy are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Görg, Holger & Ina C. Jäkel (2024): Beyond Borders: Do Gender Norms and Institutions Affect Female Businesses? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17123), Bonn, 52 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, we investigate whether gender norms and institutions act as a constraint to the performance of female businesses. We exploit novel and unique micro data on start-ups in Denmark, which we combine with information on individual-level characteristics of the entrepreneur as main decision maker of the firm. We overcome the challenge of disentangling norms and institutional biases against women from other constraints and hurdles that female businesses might face by exploiting detailed trade data. In this trade context, we study the relative performance of firms across markets with varying institutions, while controlling for other factors that affect female businesses uniformly across all markets. We provide evidence that gender inequality and institutional biases against women in trade partner countries play an important role in explaining gender differences in export and import behaviour. We also perform an event study of a concrete policy change in a destination market – the introduction of quotas for the share of females on the boards of directors in Norway – and how it has affected the gender gap in trade participation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hirschfeld, Alexander, Tobias Kollmann, Jannis Gilde, Vanusch Walk & Mia Ansorge (2024): Deutscher Startup Monitor 2024. Den Blick nach vorne. Berlin, 62 S.

Abstract

"Der Startup-Jobmotor stottert, aber Blick nach vorne ist positiv: Nach dem stetigen Aufwärtstrend der letzten Jahre sinkt die durchschnittliche Mitarbeitendenzahl in diesem Jahr von 18,9 auf 16,7 – gleichzeitig gehen aber 79,8 % von einer Verbesserung der Geschäftslage bis Ende 2025 aus. Profitabilität und B2B stehen im Mittelpunkt: Im Kontext anhaltender Herausforderungen rückt bei Startups Profitabilität (78,8 %) gegenüber schnellem Wachstum (54,0 %) in den strategischen Fokus – außerdem steigt der Anteil am Umsatz mit Geschäftskunden auf 74,7 % (2023: 70,4 %). Nachhaltigkeit bleibt Fokus: Auch im Kontext der wirtschaftlichen Herausforderungen rücken deutsche Startups nicht von ihrem klaren Bekenntnis zur ökologischen Nachhaltigkeit ab und die Selbstzuordnung zur Green Economy steigt leicht von 46,7 % 2023 auf 48,1 %. Der Gründerinnenanteil sinkt: Nach dem langsamen, aber kontinuierlichen Anstieg in den letzten Jahren geht der Anteil der Frauen unter deutschen Startup-Gründer*innen in diesem Jahr von 20,7 % auf 18,8 % zurück. Hochschulen schaffen unternehmerische Innovation: Der Anteil an Startups, die von einer Hochschule unterstützt wurden, steigt von 49,2 % auf 55,1 %. Während vor allem die gute Vernetzung (62,4 %) hervorgehoben wird, bewerten nur 39,5 % die Vorbereitung auf den Startup-Alltag positiv. DeepTech spielt signifikante Rolle: 11,4 % der deutschen Startups lassen sich der Kategorie DeepTech zuordnen. Sie zeichnen sich dadurch aus, dass sie neuste wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse und Technologien auf den Markt bringen und ihre Produkte längere Entwicklungszeiten haben. Bei Kooperationen hakt es weiter: Nur 37,5 % bewerten die Möglichkeiten zur Zusammenarbeit mit der etablierten Wirtschaft als gut – nochmal weniger als im Vorjahr (40,5 %). So ist der Anteil an Startups mit Unternehmenskooperationen seit dem Höchststand in 2020 kontinuierlich zurückgegangen, hat sich 2024 aber zumindest stabilisiert. Startups stehen für Internationalität: Der Anteil ausländischer Mitarbeitender im deutschen Startup-Ökosystem liegt bei 30,8 % und in 34,9 % der Startups gilt die Arbeitssprache Englisch – in Berlin liegen diese Werte sogar bei 42,3 % und 55,8 %. Wunsch zu Gründen entsteht meist früh: Bei sechs von zehn Gründer*innen kam die Idee, ein eigenes Unternehmen aufzubauen, bereits vor dem Karrierestart auf – entweder erstmalig in der Jugend (29,6 %) oder im Rahmen des Studiums bzw. der Ausbildung (29,9 %). Das sind die Erwartungen an die Politik: Startups erwarten vom Bund vor allem Fortschritte bei der Digitalisierung der Verwaltung (58,5 %) und für größere Scaleups steht daneben die Flexibilisierung des Arbeitsmarkts (59,5 %) im Fokus." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Hunt, Jennifer & Carolyn Moehling (2024): Do Female–Owned Employment Agencies Mitigate Discrimination and Expand Opportunity for Women? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16941), Bonn, 35 S., Appendix.

Abstract

"We create a dataset of 14,000 hand–coded help –wanted advertisements placed by employment agencies in three U.S. newspapers in 1950 and 1960, a time when help–wanted advertisements were divided into male and female sections, and collect information on agency ownership. We find that female–owned agencies specialized in vacancies for women, thereby expanding the access of female jobseekers to agency services, including for positions in majority–male occupations. Female–owned agencies advertised more skilled occupations to women than did male–owned agencies, leading to a 5.5% higher wage for women. On the other hand, female–owned agencies had a greater propensity to match male jobseekers to clerical jobs, contributing to 21% lower male wages than for male–owned agencies. The results are consistent with female proprietors having had a comparative advantage in female jobseekers and clerical occupations or with client firms having trusted female proprietors only with vacancies for women and homogeneous, lower–skill occupations. However, in choosing to establish an agency and to specialize in female jobseekers, female proprietors may have sought to mitigate employer discrimination against female jobseekers; their higher propensity to advertise majority–male occupations among professional, technical and managerial advertisements for women may also reflect discrimination mitigation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kritikos, Alexander S., Mika Maliranta, Veera Nippala & Satu Nurmi (2024): Does gender of firm ownership matter? Female entrepreneurs and the gender pay gap. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 1422), Essen, 39 S.

Abstract

"We examine how the gender of business-owners is related to the wages paid to female relative to male employees working in their firms. Using Finnish register data and employing firm fixed effects, we find that the gender pay gap is - starting from a gender pay gap of 11 to 12 percent - two to three percentage-points lower for hourly wages in female-owned firms than in male-owned firms. Results are robust to how the wage is measured, as well as to various further robustness checks. More importantly, we find substantial differences between industries. While, for instance, in the manufacturing sector, the gender of the owner plays no role for the gender pay gap, in several service sector industries, like ICT or business services, no or a negligible gender pay gap can be found, but only when firms are led by female business owners. Businesses in male ownership maintain a gender pay gap of around 10 percent also in the latter industries. With increasing firm size, the influence of the gender of the owner, however, fades. In large firms, it seems that others - firm managers - determine wages and no differences in the pay gap are observed between male- and female-owned firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Love, Inessa, Boris Nikolaev & Chandra Dhakal (2024): The well-being of women entrepreneurs: the role of gender inequality and gender roles. In: Small business economics, Jg. 62, H. 1, S. 325-352. DOI:10.1007/s11187-023-00769-z

Abstract

"The current study presents new evidence on the well-being of women entrepreneurs using data from the World Values Survey for 80 countries. Results indicate that in low- and middle-income countries, female entrepreneurs have lower well-being than male entrepreneurs, while in high-income countries, they have higher well-being. Several macro and micro-level mechanisms– institutional context, gender roles, and individual characteristics–that potentially moderate this relationship are explored. The gender gap in well-being is larger in countries with higher gender inequality, lower level of financial development, and stricter adherence to sexist gender roles. Additionally, women entrepreneurs with lower education, more children, and risk-averse preferences are more likely to report lower well-being. The results suggest several policy mechanisms that can be used to enhance the well-being of women entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Singer, Kirsten & Nicole Fleischer (2024): Die Arbeitsmarktsituation von Frauen und Männern 2023. (Berichte: Blickpunkt Arbeitsmarkt / Bundesagentur für Arbeit), Nürnberg, 29 S.

Abstract

"Die Erwerbsneigung und Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen und Männern sind in Deutschland in den letzten 10 Jahren deutlich gestiegen. Nur in wenigen Ländern Europas ist die Erwerbsbeteiligung insgesamt und insbesondere von Frauen so hoch wie in Deutschland. Frauen und Männer sind unterschiedlich in den verschiedenen Formen der Erwerbstätigkeit vertreten: Rund zwei Drittel der Selbständigen sind Männer. Die sozialversicherungspflichtig Beschäftigten sind zu über der Hälfte männlich. Bei den Beamten sind Frauen und Männer je zur Hälfte vertreten und Minijobs sind nach wie vor eine Frauendomäne." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Slavici, Melanie & Veronika Kneip (2024): Rollenerwartungen und wenn Gründerinnen sie nicht erfüllen – Szenarien zur Startup-Finanzierung und -Berichterstattung. In: Zeitschrift für Diversitätsforschung und -management, Jg. 9, H. 2-2024, S. 143-156. DOI:10.3224/zdfm.v9i2.03

Abstract

"Unser Beitrag fragt nach unterschiedlichen Rollenerwartungen, die innerhalb des StartupÖkosystems an Gründerinnen und Gründer gestellt werden, und verknüpft dafür die Role Congruity Theory (RCT) mit der Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT). Über 12 leitfadengestützte Interviews mit Investor*innen und Medienschaffenden erheben wir geschlechtsspezifische Rollenerwartungen, prüfen dann, ob diese von den Gründerinnen erfüllt werden und schließlich, inwieweit rollen(in)kongruentes Verhalten belohnt oder sanktioniert wird. Entlang von vier Szenarien zeigen wir, dass Gründerinnen keinesfalls „nur“ die Wahl zwischen Belohnung für Rollenkongruenz oder Sanktion für Rolleninkongruenz haben." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Ubfal, Diego (2024): What Works in Supporting Women-Led Businesses? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16950), Bonn, 34 S.

Abstract

"Innovative women entrepreneurs can be agents of change and offer novel solutions to global challenges. However, they face multiple barriers to growing their businesses. This paper reviews the literature on strategies to support women entrepreneurs in improving their business outcomes. It focuses on interventions designed to address four areas of constraints that influence their decisions and can impact their business performance: gaps in human capital, access to finance, access to technology and markets, and contextual factors such as legal and regulatory constraints, social norms, access to care, and gender-based violence. The review concludes that evidence of modest average treatment effects and heterogeneity in treatment effects across various interventions suggest the need for more precise targeting. The multiple constraints faced by women entrepreneurs necessitates testing different packages of interventions. Moreover, the successful implementation and adoption of proposed solutions require consideration of the contextual constraints that differentially affect women-led businesses. While the review highlights several interventions that show promise in supporting women entrepreneurs, significant gaps remain in the evidence concerning the most effective strategies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Zelekha, Yaron (2024): The effect of spouses on the entrepreneurial gender gap. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 20, H. 4, S. 2481-2514. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01008-x

Abstract

"In a novel contribution to the entrepreneurial, the Gender and Development (GAD) and the relational capital (RC) literatures, this study examines the possible role of spouses on the entrepreneurial gender gap through the family embeddedness model, which sees the family members as embedded in their social relationships and describes family systems through three interrelated characteristics (family transitions, family resources and family norms including attitudes, and values). Using a unique representative matched sample of 321 married couples, the results supports both the preselection and especially the socialization hypotheses by showing that married people have a significant association with their partners regarding their entrepreneurial tendency which also increases as marriage duration extends. Furthermore, while such similarity is associated with an increased probability for women to become an entrepreneur, it is also associated with men’s decreased probability to become an entrepreneur. Finally, clear evidence was found that family income had a significant positive association with men’s entrepreneurial tendency as well as with their probability to become entrepreneurs. However, it did not have any signifcant association with a woman’s entrepreneurial tendency nor with their probability to become entrepreneurs. The results shed light on important possible drivers for the entrepreneurial gender gap that works inside the family premises." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Ahn, Kunwon & John V. Winters (2023): Does education enhance entrepreneurship? In: Small business economics, Jg. 61, H. 2, S. 717-743. DOI:10.1007/s11187-022-00701-x

Abstract

"Formal education is correlated with entrepreneurial activity and success, but correlation does not indicate causation. Education and entrepreneurship are both influenced by other related factors. The current study estimates the causal effects of formal education on entrepreneurship outcomes by instrumenting for an individual's years of schooling using cohort mean years of maternal schooling observed decades prior. We differentiate self-employment by industry employment growth and firm incorporation status. Policymakers are especially interested in entrepreneurship with the potential to create substantial employment growth. We find that an additional year of schooling increases self-employment in high-growth industries by 1.12 percentage points for women and by 0.88 percentage points for men. Education reduces the probability of male self-employment in shrinking industries. Education also increases incorporated self-employment for women and men and reduces unincorporated self-employment among men but not women. The overall probability of self-employment increases with education for women but is unaffected by education for men. The results suggest that formal education enhances entrepreneurship." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Charpin, Agnès, Ariane Szafarz & Ilan Tojerow (2023): Female corporate owners and female CEOs. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 232. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111285

Abstract

"“Old boys’ club” ownership structures can hamper the empowerment of female talent. We use African data to show that the CEOs of firms with female shareholders are more likely to be women, regardless of the size of female shareholdings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 Elsevier) ((en))

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Köpke, Ulrike & Eva Schmitt-Rodermund (2023): Aus welchen Gründen wagen Hochschulabsolventinnen seltener den Schritt in die Selbstständigkeit als Hochschulabsolventen? Eine Analyse auf Basis des DZHW-Absolventenpanels. In: Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Jg. 75, H. 3, S. 289-318. DOI:10.1007/s11577-023-00909-z

Abstract

"Warum wagen Frauen seltener den Schritt in die Selbstständigkeit als Männer? Die vorliegende Untersuchung fokussiert auf die Umsetzung einer Selbstständigkeit durch Hochschulabsolventinnen und -absolventen und untersucht, welche Faktoren mit der Geschlechterlücke einhergehen. Die Auswahl der Prädiktoren basiert auf dem theoretischen Modell von Eccles et al. (1983), welches in der Tradition eines „Erwartung × Wert-Modells“ unter Einbeziehung sozialer, psychologischer, demografischer und ökonomischer Einflüsse die berufliche Wahlentscheidung beleuchtet. Sowohl über die Zeit hinweg stabile Merkmale, wie die Selbstständigkeit der Eltern, der fachspezifische Studienabschluss und das Big Five-Persönlichkeitsprofil, als auch dynamische und durch Lebensumstände beeinflusste Faktoren, wie Arbeits- und Lebensziele, wurden untersucht. Die Datengrundlage bildete die zweite Welle des DZHW (Deutsches Zentrum für Hochschul- und Wissenschaftsforschung) Absolventenpanel 2009 (N = 2465). Um den Einfluss der Prädiktoren auf die Geschlechterdifferenzen zu analysieren, wurden logistische Regressionsmodelle berechnet, die zum einen den Einfluss insgesamt und zum anderen den geschlechterseparierten Einfluss auf die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Umsetzung einer Selbstständigkeit untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse belegen, dass Frauen nach wie vor seltener beruflich selbstständig sind als Männer. Geschlechtsspezifische Auswertungen zeigen weiterhin, dass bei Absolventinnen vor allem Arbeits- und Lebensziele und bei Männern die Vorbildrolle der Eltern dazu führt, unternehmerisch tätig zu sein. Absolventinnen, denen ein sicherer Arbeitsplatz eher unwichtig und eine Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie weder besonders wichtig noch besonders unwichtig ist, zeigen eine höhere Wahrscheinlichkeit, selbstständig tätig zu sein, während diese Arbeits- und Lebensziele für Absolventen weniger entscheidend sind. Die Ergebnisse zeigen aber auch, dass Absolventinnen und Absolventen hinsichtlich ihres unternehmerischen Persönlichkeitsprofils gleichermaßen gut für eine berufliche Selbstständigkeit ausgestattet sind. Das Papier schließt mit Überlegungen, wie die berufliche Selbstständigkeit insbesondere bei Hochschulabsolventinnen gefördert werden kann." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag)

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Machokoto, Michael & Eugene Bempong Nyantakyi (2023): Are women-owned enterprises better for employees? In: Economics Letters, Jg. 232. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111368

Abstract

"This study provides novel survey-based insights from an under-researched developing market perspective into whether women-owned enterprises offer better working environments despite being resource-constrained and subject to engendered restrictions. Using a hand-collected survey-based dataset from Kenya and Tanzania, we find that women-owned enterprises provide more training programs, pension coverage, health insurance, female and youth employment opportunities, and are more innovative. We attribute these findings to the fact that female participation leads to a more empathic and socially responsible approach to decision-making, resulting in better employee welfare outcomes. Our findings echo the need to spur equitable and sustained economic growth by eliminating engendered restrictions and providing more resources to female entrepreneurs in developing markets." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 Elsevier) ((en))

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Metzger, Georg (2023): KfW-Gründungsmonitor 2023: Gründungstätigkeit in Deutschland: im Spannungsfeld zwischen Fachkräftemangel und Corona-Blues. (KfW-Gründungsmonitor), Frankfurt am Main, 10 S.

Abstract

"Die Gründungstätigkeit in Deutschland ist im Jahr 2022 auf 550.000 Existenzgründungen zurückgegangen. Davon waren 222.000 Vollerwerbsgründungen (40%), und 328.000 Nebenerwerbsgründungen. Bei jeder fünften Nebenerwerbsgründung besteht allerdings die Absicht, die Selbstständigkeit zum Vollerwerb auszuweiten. Die anhaltend gute Arbeitsmarktentwicklung hat maßgeblich zu diesem Rückgang beigetragen. Der Fachkräftemangel bleibt auch in Zukunft eine große Herausforderung für die Gründungstätigkeit. Insgesamt ist vor allem die Zahl der Gründerinnen gesunken, während sich die Zahl der Gründer kaum veränderte." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Oladipo, Oluwasheyi, Katarzyna Platt & Hyoung Suk Shim (2023): Female entrepreneurs managing from home. In: Small business economics, Jg. 61, H. 2, S. 447-464. DOI:10.1007/s11187-022-00713-7

Abstract

"Gender roles demand that women devote more time to non-market labor such as childcare and household responsibilities. Therefore, the labor market hinders women's ability to compete with their male counterparts, whose time is less subject to the demands of non-market work. The result is a performance gap between men and women. To obtain the flexibility to more efficiently perform both their market and non-market work, many women choose to be self-employed and operate their businesses from home. Using a large sample of US firms, we find that women who choose to operate their own businesses from home are able to narrow the performance gap between men and women entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Smyk, Magdalena, Siri Terjesen & Joanna Tyrowicz (2023): Gender wage inequality and women's self-employment. (GRAPE working paper / Group for Research in Applied Economics 88), Warszawa, 30 S.

Abstract

"Theoretical literature on entrepreneurship hints that labor market inequality may constitute a relevant push factor for self-employment. Drawing on empirical confirmation, this insight is used in many policy recommendations. We propose a new approach to test and quantify the link between labor market inequality and self-employment of women. We provide a novel and rich data set labor market inequality for women, utilizing estimates of gender wage gaps specific for age and education group, comparable for 36 countries over ten years. We exploit rich and diverse international data on patterns of self-employment from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. Our results show that greater gender wage inequality is associated with higher prevalence of self-employment for both men and women. Relative to men, women are actually discouraged from self-employment, which is consistent with the notion that discriminative labor markets are typically signs of discriminative societies. We show that actually necessity self-employment is more rare form of self-employment in unequal societies, which is consistent with explanations stressing access to resources, networks and markets as relevant dimensions of gender inequality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2023): Schwanger- und Mutterschaft für Gründerinnen und Selbständige erleichtern. (Verhandlungen des Deutschen Bundestages. Drucksachen 20/6911 (23.05.2023)), Berlin, 3 S.

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Crecente, Fernando, María Sarabia & María Teresa del Val (2022): The value of entrepreneurship by gender on regional behaviour. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 18, H. 1, S. 435-453. DOI:10.1007/s11365-021-00777-z

Abstract

"This paper examines how the value of entrepreneurship by gender is related to regional behaviour. Researchers have traditionally defined entrepreneurial organization as separate to gender and to economic growth. Using the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) we complete a dataset of 50 countries using variables such as total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) and opportunity-driven entrepreneurial activity (OPP). The methodology used proposes an analysis of regional convergence, comparing the evolution over time of both the rate of entrepreneurial activity and the ratios of opportunity-driven and need-driven entrepreneurial activity, distinguishing by gender. On the other hand, a regression model is proposed that explains the greater presence of female entrepreneurship. The results show that entrepreneurship by gender is an important factor to define different cluster of countries according to how men and women entrepreneurs create new economic opportunities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Darnihamedani, Pourya & Siri Terjesen (2022): Male and female entrepreneurs' employment growth ambitions: the contingent role of regulatory efficiency. In: Small business economics, Jg. 58, H. 1, S. 185-204. DOI:10.1007/s11187-020-00405-0

Abstract

"Entrepreneurs start and grow their ventures in a widely varying set of institutional contexts. One differentiator is a country's regulatory efficiency which encompasses the freedom to start and to run a business without excessive government interventions around registering, hiring, and firing employees, and price controls on currency. The efficiency of regulations varies substantially among countries and imposes additional costs and risks on entrepreneurs' activities. We integrate insights from institutional theory and recent literature on gender and entrepreneurship to better understand how a country's regulatory efficiency affects male and female entrepreneurs' employment growth ambitions. We explore three aspects of regulatory efficiency: business freedom (e.g., to start, operate, and close a venture), labor freedom (e.g., laws around minimum wage, layoffs, severance), and monetary freedom (e.g., price stability) using data from over 47,000 entrepreneurs in 68 countries. We find that entrepreneurs' growth ambitions are higher in countries with more efficient regulations, particularly those countries characterized by fewer labor law restrictions and greater monetary freedoms. These findings are further exacerbated by gender by such that, relative to their female counterparts, male entrepreneurs have significantly greater venture growth ambitions. Our paper contributes to the discussion on how formal institutions influence women and men entrepreneurs in distinct ways." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Elam, Amanda, Benjamin S. Baumer, Thomas Schott, Mahsa Samsami, Amit Kumar Dwivedi, Rico Baldegger, Maribel Guerrero, Fatima Boutaleb & Karen D. Hughes (2022): GEM 2021/22 Women’s Entrepreneurship Report: From Crisis to Opportunity. (GEM ... women's entrepreneurship report / Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2021/2022), London, 183 S.

Abstract

"The GEM 2021/22 Women's Entrepreneurship Report offers a trend analysis of women’s entrepreneurship in 50 countries, five global regions and three national income levels. We focus on four key themes in the first half of the report, followed by a closer analysis of region- and country-specific patterns in the second half. The four themes are (1) gender differences in rates at various points in the entrepreneurial lifecycle, from intentions through to startup activity, new business, established business and business exit; (2) gender differences in COVID impacts, both positive and negative; (3) structural inequalities and women’s participation in high-potential startups; and (4) factors in the enabling environment that likely influence gender differences in entrepreneurial activity. Our findings offer insights to a diverse audience of researchers, policymakers, educators and practitioners. Our goal is to highlight areas where women entrepreneurs have made significant progress, where the COVID-19 pandemic impacted their business outcomes, and where there are still gaps, challenges and opportunities that can be better addressed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Haasler, Simone R. & Anna Hokema (2022): Female Solo Self-Employment in Germany: The Role of Transitions and Learning From a Life Course Perspective. In: Social Inclusion, Jg. 10, H. 4, S. 150-160. DOI:10.17645/si.v10i4.5743

Abstract

"Based on a qualitative analysis of 12 solo self-employed women's work biographies, this article investigates the (re)structuring effects of solo self-employment on the professional and private lives of women in Germany in their mid- and late-career stages. While solo self-employment has been gaining significance in the German labour market in the last two decades, it is largely an underresearched subject from the perspective of female labour market participation. Our study shows that the transition to working solo self-employed constitutes a marked break in female work biographies with lasting restructuring effects on their life courses. Constituting a deviation from the female standard life course, this move can be understood as a coping strategy of biographical discontinuities, which translates into specific patterns against the background that women (still) assume most of the care and housework responsibilities. How the transition to solo self-employment is being prepared and managed and what role learning and risk management play in the transition process is the focus of our article. Our aim is to better understand the underlining rationalisation logics of female solo self-employment in terms of labour market participation, reconciling work and family life, and professional self-realisation. While in the German welfare system solo self-employed bear higher risks of precarity and financial old age insecurity, solo self-employment is functional as an individual strategy for action, giving women the opportunity to do justice to their (mid) life courses and intrinsic needs to pursue both professional work and freedom of choice when and how to work. This may act as a corrective for gender inequalities in the world of work, especially when it comes to working in a self-determined way." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Herold, Elena, Carla Krolage, Manuel Menkhoff, Annika Oberhuber & Paul Schüle (2022): Frauen als Gründerinnen: Die Covid-Pandemie vergrößert den bestehenden Gender Gap. In: Ifo-Schnelldienst, Jg. 75, H. 10, S. 36-40.

Abstract

"Der Anteil der Frauen unter den Unternehmensgründer*innen in Deutschland ist von je her niedrig. Im Zuge der Covid-19-Pandemie ist der Frauenanteil an den Einzelgründungen in den letzten Jahren sogar noch einmal deutlich gesunken. Diese Entwicklung ließ sich insbesondere in ländlichen Regionen beobachten. Insgesamt ist die Frauenquote an Neugründungen in den Großstädten und einigen ostdeutschen Kreisen am höchsten." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Kiefer, Kip, Mark Heileman & Timothy L. Pett (2022): Does gender still matter? An examination of small business performance. In: Small business economics, Jg. 58, H. 1, S. 141-167. DOI:10.1007/s11187-020-00403-2

Abstract

"This study provides novel insights into gender differences in small business outcomes. We analyze the first publicly available microdata from the 2007 US Census Bureau PUMS dataset, in a manner similar to (Fairlie and Robb's in Small Business Economics, 33, 375–395 2009) analysis of the 1992 CBO dataset, and explore differences in female-led versus male-led firms' business performances over a 15-year period. Findings indicate that gender differences persist and that female-led businesses continue to trail male-led businesses in survival rates, profits, employment (i.e., firm size), and sales. We also extend the work by (Fairlie and Robb in Small Business Economics, 33, 375–395 2009), by examining new performance and predictor measures, including payroll firm and longevity. We find that female-led businesses trail male-led businesses in these variables as well. However, the news is not all bad. Our findings also reveal that, although female-led businesses continue to trail male-led businesses in performance outcomes, both female- and male-led businesses are improving and in some cases performance improvements by female-led businesses are out-pacing their male-led counterparts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Martínez-Rodríguez, Isabel, Consolación Quintana-Rojo, Pedro Gento & Fernando-Evaristo Callejas-Albiñana (2022): Public policy recommendations for promoting female entrepreneurship in Europe. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 18, H. 3, S. 1235-1262. DOI:10.1007/s11365-021-00751-9

Abstract

"From 2021 onwards, female entrepreneurship is expected to grow very substantially as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. The introduction of teleworking and staggered hours in many countries at national or workplace level will make possible the conciliation between labour and family life. The purpose of this paper is to identify the most influential explanatory factors in the behaviour of female entrepreneurship in Europe so as to subsequently propose efficient economic policy measures to promote it. The distinction between opportunity and necessity female entrepreneurs have been considered since both motivation and factors are different in each case. 15 econometric models using the panel data method for a sample of 20 previously selected European countries (grouped by their GDP level) during the period 2001 to 2018 have been estimated to determine which explanatory factors affect female entrepreneurship and necessity-based female entrepreneurship. The empirical analysis used demonstrates that more women enter into entrepreneurship due to necessity rather than in pursuit of opportunity for European countries both with higher levels of GDP and for countries with lower levels of GDP. In this context, the following policy measures should be implemented to promote female entrepreneurship in Europe: the optimization of government spending (training courses and mentoring, public procurement, stronger networks, support in reconciling business and family life, etc.), the government incentives for subsidizing high interest rates to support women in accessing financing, and the improvement of entrepreneurship education to increase the confidence of women in themselves in their own entrepreneurial capabilities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Oggero, Noemi, Francesco Devicienti, Mariacristina Rossi & Davide Vannoni (2022): You can't be what you can't see: The role of gender in the intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurship. (Carlo Alberto notebooks 675), Turin, 33 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, we investigate how the intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurship varies between sons and daughters, and whether such a process depends on living in a country characterized by a high gender gap. Using the SHARE dataset, we find that the effect on daughters’ entrepreneurial choices of having an entrepreneur as father is lower than the one on sons only in countries with a high gender gap. Moreover, it is just in countries with high gender inequality that the effect of having an entrepreneurial mother is different between sons and daughters, with the impact being positive for daughters only. We also develop an individual-level indicator of gender gap within countries that corroborates our findings, which we interpret as evidence of the presence of a role modeling mechanism. However, we find evidence of convergence across time of the intergenerational transmission process to the gender-independent transfer typical of more gender equal countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Oladipo, Oluwasheyi S. & Hyoung Suk Shim (2022): Microentrepreneurs' Gender Difference in Labor Demand. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 15690), Bonn, 49 S.

Abstract

"This paper empirically examines firm owners' gender difference in labor demand. We estimate the average treatment effect (ATE) of female ownership on employment of the firm using the 2007 Survey of Business Owners (SBO) Public Use Micro Sample (PUMS), provided by the U.S. Census Bureau. Because female microentrepreneurs potentially demand more labor so as to allocate time for household production, we hypothesize a condition under which female microentrepreneurs employ more, and that is, if they are free from financial constraints. We show first that the estimation of the ATE for female ownership can have a downward selection bias that may yield negative ATE estimates, and this downward selection bias comes from male owners being less financially constrained than female owners. We then perform the two-stage least squares (TSLS) estimation using two sets of instrumental variables (IVs), which are indicator variables for i) inheritance; and ii) loans from bank or family/friend. The estimation results present that the female owner effect on labor demand as local average treatment effect (LATE) is identified and consistently estimated by using the IVs. From the main model estimation, we find a positive and statistically significant female owner effect that female owners hire more employees than male owners by about 25.8%." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Serrano-Pascual, Amparo & Carlota Carretero-García (2022): Women's entrepreneurial subjectivity under scrutiny: Expert knowledge on gender and entrepreneurship. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 29, H. 2, S. 666-686. DOI:10.1111/gwao.12806

Abstract

"In recent years, entrepreneurship has become a guiding principle of the thinkable, not just in economy, but also justice. Boosting entrepreneurship among women is a manifestation of this project, which a-problematically links the call for equality with the activation of the economy. The standpoint usually taken in scientific and political debates assumes that, in the case of women, there is an incompatibility between gender norms and entrepreneurial subjectivity. Considering the performative nature of knowledge production, this article analyses how gender is (un)done through the problematization of women's entrepreneurial subjectivity by expert knowledge. To do so, it reviews a sample of the scientific literature of the past 10 years focused on the complex relations in place throughout these regulatory spaces. The authors identify three types of approaches (women facing entrepreneurship, the gender of entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurship of gender) and discuss the prevailing normative assumptions, as well as the political implications, through a gender and feminist lens." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Stossier, Theresa (2022): Female Solo-Entrepreneurs. Coping Strategies for Handling the Challenges and Double Burden of Business and Private Life. (BestMasters), Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, XVIII, 178 S. DOI:10.1007/978-3-658-40336-2

Abstract

"Austria's economy is characterized through small and medium sized enterprises. Solo entrepreneurs are considered a special form within SMEs and contribute a major share to Austrian's economy besides being Austria's most popular legal form of organization within the micro firms. In 2020 every second of Carinthia's start-up businesses was established by a female entrepreneur. According to an entrepreneurship study presented by Volksbank in 2019, nearly half of all female entrepreneurs lived with children and juveniles. Two-thirds of women said they were solely responsible for family, childcare, and household and 71 percent of those female entrepreneurs specified that those circumstances caused difficulties for them. This book investigated Carinthian female solo entrepreneurs and aims to find out how these hard-working women manage their business and private life while contributing to such great extent to the (federal) state's economy. The conceptual foundations were found in embeddedness and the contextual framework which supports the importance of numerous influences on different levels placed on the entrepreneur. The empirical section represents a primary research that evaluates self-collected data sets of Carinthian solo-entrepreneurs. About the author Theresa Stossier completed a master's program in business administration at the Alpen-Adria University Klagenfurt after education and bachelor studies in the field of tourism." (Provided by publisher)

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Bastida, Maria (2021): Women's entrepreneurship and self-employment, including aspects of gendered Corporate Social Responsibility. Brüssel, 87 S. DOI:10.2861/284985

Abstract

"This study was commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the FEMM Committee. It highlights that despite the increasing number of public policies and institutional resources designed to promote women-led business, the entrepreneurship gender gap persists. This study aims to analyse this apparent contradiction, focusing on three main questions: What are the constraints that women face when deciding to become entrepreneurs? What factors attract women’s interest and motivate them to start their own business? And which policies may benefit women’s entrepreneurship?" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chiplunkar, Gaurav & Pinelopi Koujianou Goldberg (2021): Aggregate Implications of Barriers to Female Entrepreneurship. (NBER working paper 28486), Cambridge, MA, 53 S. DOI:10.3386/w28486

Abstract

"We develop a framework for identifying and quantifying barriers to entry and operation faced by female entrepreneurs in developing countries, and apply it to the Indian economy. We find that despite considerable progress over time, female entrepreneurs still face substantial entry and business registration costs (almost twice their male counterparts'). The costs of expanding a business, conditional on entry, are also substantially higher for women. However, there is one area in which female entrepreneurs have an advantage: hiring female workers is easier for them. We show that this pattern is not driven by the sectoral composition of female employment. Counterfactual simulations indicate that removing all excess barriers faced by women entrepreneurs would: (a) increase the fraction of female-owned firms significantly (nine times); (b) increase the real wages of female relative to male workers; and (c) generate substantial aggregate productivity and welfare gains (ca. 7% and 18% respectively). These large gains are due to reallocation: low productivity male-owned firms previously sheltered from female competition are replaced by higher productivity female-owned firms previously excluded from the economy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gather, Claudia & Ingrid Biermann (2021): Unternehmen: Warum gründen Frauen seltener? In: Wirtschaftsdienst, Jg. 101, H. 11, S. 838-838. DOI:10.1007/s10273-021-3036-9

Abstract

"Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass strukturelle Gründe, wie die unterschiedliche Berufswahl, die Geschlechterunterschiede bei den Gründungen zu einem guten Teil erklären können. Hinzu kommt, dass das deutsche soziale Sicherungssystem Gründerinnen mit Kinderwunsch benachteiligt." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag)

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Graeber, Daniel, Alexander S. Kritikos & Johannes Seebauer (2021): COVID-19: A Crisis of the Female Self-Employed. In: Journal of Population Economics, Jg. 34, H. 4, S. 1141-1187. DOI:10.1007/s00148-021-00849-y

Abstract

"We investigate how the economic consequences of the pandemic and the government-mandated measures to contain its spread affect the self-employed — particularly women — in Germany. For our analysis, we use representative, real-time survey data in which respondents were asked about their situation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings indicate that among the self-employed, who generally face a higher likelihood of income losses due to COVID-19 than employees, women are about one-third more likely to experience income losses than their male counterparts. We do not find a comparable gender gap among employees. Our results further suggest that the gender gap among the self-employed is largely explained by the fact that women disproportionately work in industries that are more severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Our analysis of potential mechanisms reveals that women are significantly more likely to be impacted by government-imposed restrictions, e.g., the regulation of opening hours. We conclude that future policy measures intending to mitigate the consequences of such shocks should account for this considerable variation in economic hardship." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Metzger, Georg (2021): KfW-Start-up-Report 2021. Corona-Krise belastet Zahl der Start-ups - VC-affine Start-ups aber nur wenig betroffen. (KfW-Start-up-Report ...), Frankfurt am Main, 7 S.

Abstract

"Der Bestand an innovations- oder wachstumsorientierten jungen Unternehmen in Deutschland hat durch die Corona-Krise gelitten. Im Jahr 2020 ging die Zahl der Start-ups auf 47.000 zurück, nach 70.000 im Jahr 2019. Die deutlich geringere Zahl an Gründungen konnte offensichtlich die in diesem Segment typischerweise hohe Zahl der Schließungen nicht kompensieren. Im Vergleich zum Rückgang der Start-ups insgesamt blieb die Zahl der Venture Capital-affinen Start-ups mit 8.600 (2019: 9.400) dagegen erstaunlich stabil. Bei Start-ups sind im langjährigen Durchschnitt 20 % der Gründungspersonen Frauen. Das ist nur etwa halb so häufig wie im Gründungsgeschehen insgesamt. Davon ausgehend sinkt der Anteil von Gründerinnen sukzessive, je mehr Start-up-Merkmale in die Betrachtung einbezogen werden. Hierfür spielen geschlechterstereotype Verhaltensweisen eine Rolle. Die Weichenstellung hin zu mehr Start-up-Gründerinnen liegt also bereits weit vor der Gründung. Es braucht aber auch mehr erfolgreiche Rollenvorbilder. Hier hilft mehr Diversität im Venture Capital-Ökosystem, die den Zugang von Gründerinnen zu Venture Capital (VC) verbessert." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Naldi, Lucia, Massimo Baù, Helene Ahl & Magdalena Markowska (2021): Gender (in)equality within the household and business start-up among mothers. In: Small business economics, Jg. 56, H. 3, S. 903-918. DOI:10.1007/s11187-019-00275-1

Abstract

"Using data on all businesses started by mothers of young children in Sweden between 2000 and 2014, we explore which factors are associated with entrepreneurship among mothers. We find that being unemployed or being an immigrant is positively associated with business start-up by mothers; however, our findings show that what matters more is the paternity leave taken by the mothers' partners. These findings suggest that in institutional contexts such as Sweden, gender inequality is not a persistent feature of most households and that women can make career choices by negotiating with their partners who will make use of the parental benefits offered by the government." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Türko, Esra Sena (Hrsg.) (2021): Regional Differences in Women Entrepreneurship. Berlin: Peter Lang, 223 S.

Abstract

"In women entrepreneurship studies, the regional emphasis generally remained limited to the studies carried out within the scope of regional development. Regional differences were detected in many studies. However, unless the research was conducted within the theoretical framework of the regional economy, they were not discussed within this context. This book aims to represent the findings of studies on women entrepreneurship from various theoretical frameworks, which address differences and similarities at the regional level together and reveal the big picture. In addition, the factors causing differences in women entrepreneurship at the regional level and the topics, in which differences were observed, have been examined. The research involves conceptual and applied studies." (Publisher information, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2021): Entrepreneurship Policies through a Gender Lens. (OECD studies on SMEs and entrepreneurship), Paris, 165 S. DOI:10.1787/71c8f9c9-en

Abstract

"This publication examines how to strengthen the scope and effectiveness of entrepreneurship policies for women. It examines both dedicated measures for women and ensuring that mainstream policies for all entrepreneurs are appropriate for women. Evidence is offered on the gender gap in entrepreneurship and its causes. At the heart of the report are 27 policy insight notes by leading international experts on the role of public policy in facilitating entrepreneurship by women and how policies can be strengthened. They highlight many long‑standing issues related to the scope and effectiveness of women’s entrepreneurship policies – many of which have been exacerbated by the COVID‑19 pandemic – and point the way to more effective policy. Issues addressed include fostering a gender‑sensitive entrepreneurship culture, building entrepreneurship skills for women, improving women’s access to financial capital, supporting networks for women entrepreneurs and creating supportive regulatory environments. Issues in the design and delivery of policy support are also addressed. The report was prepared by the OECD in collaboration with members of the Global Women’s Entrepreneurship Policy Research Project (Global WEP), a network of established researchers from over 30 counties." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Demetriades, Stavroula (2020): Female entrepreneurship: Public and private funding. Industrial relations. (Eurofound research report / European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions), Dublin, 46 S. DOI:10.2806/17117

Abstract

"Female entrepreneurs represent just a small proportion of the total number of entrepreneurs in the European Union today. Some of the hurdles facing female entrepreneurs – or would-be entrepreneurs – are related to getting adequate funding, access to the right networks, and finding the right information and advice. In the last few years, some private funds have realised that female founders are not always well served and there is a market gap when it comes to investing in women-led enterprises. This report examines the use of private funds to invest in female entrepreneurs in the European Union and Norway. In addition, it investigates the prevalence of public finance tools and public support schemes that effectively remove barriers and enable women to become competent entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Dienes, Christian & Susanne Schlepphorst (2020): Krisen von KMU: Herausforderung, Verlauf und Resilienz von frauen- und migrantengeführter Unternehmen. Bonn, IV, 58 S.

Abstract

"Diese Studie untersucht den Krisenprozess von kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen im Raum Frankfurt/Main. Dabei stehen vor allem die Herausforderungen migranten- und frauengeführter Unternehmen im Mittelpunkt. Auf Basis von insgesamt 527 befragten Unternehmen wurden 44,1 % als frauengeführt und 26,2 % als migrantengeführt identifiziert. Vier von zehn migrantengeführte Unternehmen haben in den letzten fünf Jahren eine Krise durchlaufen – ein höherer Anteil als nicht-migrantengeführte Unternehmen. Bei frauengeführten Unternehmen trat eine Krise bei drei von zehn Unternehmen auf, genauso häufig wie bei männergeführten Unternehmen. Im Großen und Ganzen bestehen zwischen migranten- und frauengeführten Unternehmen und ihren jeweiligen Pendants nur geringe Unterschiede. Dieser Befund spricht gegen gruppenspezifische Unterstützungsmaßnahmen. Allenfalls sollten Maßnahmen alle Unternehmerinnen und Unternehmer ansprechen, unabhängig von deren Herkunft oder Geschlecht." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Elliott, Catherine, Catherine Mavriplis & Hanan Anis (2020): An entrepreneurship education and peer mentoring program for women in STEM. Mentors’ experiences and perceptions of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intent. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 16, H. 1, S. 43-67. DOI:10.1007/s11365-019-00624-2

Abstract

"Women are underrepresented in STEM and in entrepreneurship but are rare in STEM entrepreneurship. A gender-sensitive entrepreneurship education and peer mentoring program for women engineering and computer science students was developed to provide classroom instruction, experiential learning, and support to a small group of students. This paper reports on the experiences of student peer mentors in the program, in terms of entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) and entrepreneurial intent (EI). Qualitative methods were adopted for this study. Student mentors were interviewed about their experiences and reported increased perceptions of entrepreneurial self-efficacy, a greater awareness of diversity and gender issues, and a changed perspective on problem solving and life in general. Student mentors reported a distinct interest in becoming an entrepreneur at “some time” in their lives, although not necessarily immediately upon graduation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))