Child Penalty – Lohneinbußen durch Elternschaft
Wer Kinder hat, wird bestraft? Für viele Eltern, allen voran Mütter, gilt das in der Tat. Schließlich sind sie während der ersten Lebensjahre ihres Nachwuchses häufig gezwungen, ihre Erwerbstätigkeit einzuschränken oder aufzugeben – was sich im Laufe des Arbeitslebens in Form erheblicher Gehaltseinbußen auswirkt. Dieses Phänomen – zunächst meist als „motherhood wage gap“, inzwischen als „child penalty“ bezeichnet – hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einem volkswirtschaftlichen Trendthema entwickelt.
In diesem Themendossier finden Sie thematisch einschlägige Literatur. Mit dem Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
Verwandte Dossiers:
Gender Pay Gap – Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnungleichheit in Deutschland
Female breadwinner – Erwerbsentscheidungen von Frauen im Haushaltskontext
Gender und Arbeitsmarkt
-
Literaturhinweis
The Contribution of Employee-Led and Employer-Led Work Flexibility to the Motherhood Wage Gap (2025)
Zitatform
Adams, Abi, Mathias Fjællegaard Jensen & Barbara Petrongolo (2025): The Contribution of Employee-Led and Employer-Led Work Flexibility to the Motherhood Wage Gap. In: AEA papers and proceedings, Jg. 115, S. 243-247. DOI:10.1257/pandp.20251015
Abstract
"We analyze the contribution of job flexibility to the gender wage gap amongst Danish parents with a professional degree. We use a supervised machine learning approach to measure job flexibility from job vacancy text. We distinguish between employee-led and employer-led flexibility. We estimate pooled Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions to analyze the contribution of occupation-level exposure to flexibility to gender wage gaps. We find that employee-and employer-led flexibility contribute in opposite directions to the unexplained component of the motherhood penalty in earnings and wages for those with a professional bachelor's degree." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Parental Leave Intentions, Gender, and Job Discrimination: Insights From a Swedish Field Experiment (2025)
Zitatform
Ahmed, Ali, Mimmi Gustafsson, Johanna Rydén & Lydia Wallin Claesson (2025): Parental Leave Intentions, Gender, and Job Discrimination: Insights From a Swedish Field Experiment. In: Labour, Jg. 39, H. 3, S. 233-245. DOI:10.1111/labr.12292
Abstract
"This paper reports on a field experiment investigating hiring discrimination in the Swedish labor market against job candidates signaling intentions to take part-time parental leave. Swedish law prohibits labor market discrimination related to parental leave. We conducted a correspondence test, sending job applications to 960 employers in one male-dominated and one female-dominated low-skilled occupation. Applicants who indicated plans for parental leave were significantly less likely to receive job interview invitations, with their chances cut by half compared to those who did not mention such plans. This bias emerged across genders and occupations, revealing a systemic issue in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Homeoffice: Zukunftsvision auf dem Weg zu mehr Gleichberechtigung? (2025)
Zitatform
Alipour, Jean-Victor, Marlene Müller & Nadine Verkühlen (2025): Homeoffice: Zukunftsvision auf dem Weg zu mehr Gleichberechtigung? In: Wirtschaftsdienst, Jg. 105, H. 1, S. 59-63. DOI:10.2478/wd-2025-0017
Abstract
"Der Hauptgrund für die chronisch niedrige Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen im Vergleich zu Männern ist die „Child Penalty“. Das Phänomen beschreibt die beruflichen Nachteile, die Frauen nach der Geburt des ersten Kindes erfahren, während Männer keine Einbußen verzeichnen. Wie beeinflusst Homeoffice diese Gender-Ungleichgewichte? Verringert die Arbeit von zu Hause die Unausgewogenheit in Bezug auf Haus- und Sorgearbeit, Erwerbsbeteiligung und Entlohnung? Während die Literatur starke Hinweise liefert, dass Homeoffice die Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen fördert und teilweise Lohnungleichheiten verringern kann, ist die Auswirkung in Bezug auf Haus- und Sorgearbeit bislang weitgehend unklar." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
-
Literaturhinweis
You Can’t Force Me Into Caregiving: Paternity Leave and the Child Penalty (2025)
Zitatform
Andresen, Martin Eckhoff & Emily Nix (2025): You Can’t Force Me Into Caregiving: Paternity Leave and the Child Penalty. In: The Economic Journal. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueaf057
Abstract
"Children cause large reductions in earnings for mothers but not fathers, a stylised fact known as the “child penalty” that explains a substantial portion of remaining gender income gaps. We evaluate the impact of paternity leave, a policy intended to increase fathers ’ time with their young children and potentially decrease the child penalty by making caregiving more equitable. Despite fathers overwhelmingly taking up this leave, we detect no impacts on child penalties. We additionally find no impact of paternity leave on the amount of leave fathers take for subsequent children, a good proxy for gender norms within couples. Using detailed data on how mothers and fathers take leave, we highlight one possible explanation: fathers approach parental leave very differently than mothers. Fathers are much more likely to take their paternity leave during summer holidays, when their children are already in formal care, and take more part-time leave than mothers. This tendency is stronger among fathers induced to take more leave by paternity leave quotas than fathers in general, suggesting that quota-induced leave may not lead fathers to act as primary caregivers. Consequently, we show descriptive evidence that child penalties are almost 10 percentage points smaller in families where fathers voluntarily take leave than in families where fathers are induced to take leave by paternity leave quotas." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
The large family penalty in Italy: Poverty and eligibility to minimum incomes (2025)
Zitatform
Aprea, Massimo, Giovanni Gallo & Michele Raitano (2025): The large family penalty in Italy: Poverty and eligibility to minimum incomes. In: International Journal of Social Welfare, Jg. 34, H. 1, S. e12668. DOI:10.1111/ijsw.12668
Abstract
"This paper argues that public policies, including minimum income schemes (MIS), should devote specific attention to large families, in terms of both benefits' generosity and targeting, to avoid unfair penalizations. Adopting a child-centered approach to the definition of family size, and using a unique administrative-survey linked database, this study provides two main contributions for the Italian case. First, it documents the consumption-based absolute poverty outcomes according to sibling size, highlighting that large families are overexposed to this specific type of economic deprivation. Second, it investigates to what extent the household size and the number of children tend to be a penalizing factor for social benefit receipt. A key finding is that large families in absolute poverty are penalized in terms of both entitlement and generosity of MIS with the peculiar equivalence scale adopted by the scheme playing a crucial role." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Cultural‐Policy Framework and Mothers' Earnings Penalty: A European Comparison (2025)
Zitatform
Badaoui, Eliane & Eleonora Matteazzi (2025): Cultural‐Policy Framework and Mothers' Earnings Penalty: A European Comparison. In: Kyklos. DOI:10.1111/kykl.70013
Abstract
"This article explores the diversity of cultural and policy contexts in Western European countries and examines their role in explaining the persistent and heterogeneous motherhood penalty. Using harmonized European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) data from 13 countries, the analysis spans 2006 to 2022 and provides average and distributional results. The findings reveal a motherhood penalty in 10 countries, with the highest levels observed in Sweden, Norway, Germany, and Austria. For these countries, quantile regressions show a decreasing motherhood penalty along the earnings distribution. The empirical analysis further sheds light on how work–family policies, culture, minimum wages, and wage-setting institutions mediate the role of motherhood on women's earnings. The results indicate that while work–family policies promote female employment, they do not significantly mitigate the motherhood penalty. In contrast, higher minimum wages and more coordinated and centralized wage bargaining are more effective in reducing the motherhood penalty, particularly in the lower segment of the earnings distribution. More traditional gender roles and cultural values emphasizing masculinity, individualism, and power distance are associated with a lower motherhood penalty." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Reducing the child penalty by incentivizing maternal part-time work? (2025)
Zitatform
Baertsch, Laurenz & Malte Sandner (2025): Reducing the child penalty by incentivizing maternal part-time work? In: Labour Economics, Jg. 95. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2025.102759
Abstract
"Governments worldwide are discussing ways to increase maternal labor market participation and to reduce the child penalty. This study analyzes the long run effects of a paid parental leave reform in Germany, a country characterized by high rates of maternal part-time employment after childbirth. The reform introduced additional financial incentives for mothers to engage in part-time work during the first two years following childbirth. Using German social security records, we exploit the fact that only mothers whose child is born in or after July 2015 are eligible for the new part-time parental leave option in a Difference-in-Differences strategy. We find that the policy increased the probability that high-income mothers return to work during the first year after child birth by 2.1–2.8 percentage points (≈ 15%–20%).However, the policy does not affect maternal employment along the extensive or intensive margin (part-time or full-time work) in the long run (i.e. up to 4.5 years after child). This indicates that while the reform successfully encourages early part-time return to work among high-income mothers, it does not significantly reduce the child penalty. However, it does also not trap mothers in part-time employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
The Daughter Penalty (2025)
Bhalotra, Sonia; Nazarova, Angelina; Clarke, Damian;Zitatform
Bhalotra, Sonia, Damian Clarke & Angelina Nazarova (2025): The Daughter Penalty. (Warwick economic research papers 1564), Coventry, 80 S.
Abstract
"Looking at the earnings profiles of men and women after their first child is born, a number of studies establish that women suffer a larger penalty in earnings than men—a child penalty. Leveraging randomness in the sex of the first birth, we show that the child penalty in the UK is larger when the first born child is a girl. We label this the daughter penalty. Exploiting rich longitudinal survey data, we examine behavioral responses to the birth of a daughter vs. a son to illuminate the underpinnings of the daughter penalty. We find that the birth of a daughter triggers more household specialization than the birth of a son, with mothers taking on a larger share of household chores and childcare. Mothers suffer a daughter penalty in mental health, while fathers report more satisfaction with their relationship. Our findings imply that girls and boys in the UK are, on average, growing up in different home environments, with girls growing up in households that, by multiple markers, are more gender-regressive. This is potentially a mechanism for the inter-generational transmission of gendered norms" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
When Mothers Out-Earn Fathers: Effects on Fathers' Decisions to Take Paternity and Parental Leave (2025)
Zitatform
Biasi, Paola, Maria De Paola & Francesca Gioia (2025): When Mothers Out-Earn Fathers: Effects on Fathers' Decisions to Take Paternity and Parental Leave. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17601), Bonn, 36 S.
Abstract
"This study investigates the influence of the male breadwinner norm on fathers' decisions regarding childcare responsibilities. We study the complex interplay between economic factors and gender norms in shaping the division of household labor within families by analyzing the impact a breadwinning mother has on fathers' choices regarding paternity leave (fully subsidized) and parental leave (partially or not subsidized). We exploit administrative data, provided by the Italian National Security Institute (INPS), including demographic and working characteristics of both parents together with information on the use of paternity and parental leave by fathers in the 2013-2023 period. We find that, in line with the "doing gender" hypothesis, when the leave is fully subsidized, as for paternity leave, fathers are less likely to engage in childcare when their wives earn more than they do. In contrast, this dynamic does not apply in cases of parental leave, where the economic costs of aligning with the gender norm are substantial. The effects we find are robust when replacing the actual probability of there being an out-earning mother with the potential probability and are amplified by the salience of the gender identity norm." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Beliefs and Realities of Work and Care After Childbirth (2025)
Zitatform
Caplin, Andrew, Søren Leth-Petersen & Christopher Tonetti (2025): Beliefs and Realities of Work and Care After Childbirth. (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20423), London, 32 S.
Abstract
"Models of female labor supply routinely assume that women have accurate expectations about post-birth employment, but little is known about whether this assumption holds. We use a 2019 state-contingent survey of 11,000 Danish women linked to administrative data to compare pre-birth beliefs to realized outcomes. Mothers accurately anticipate long-run return to work but systematically overestimate how soon it will occur. Miscalibration stems from two belief errors—about partner leave and own labor supply—which interact and persist even among second-time mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen als: NBER working paper 34289 -
Literaturhinweis
The Daughter Penalty (2025)
Clarke, Damian; Bhalotra, Sonia R.; Nazarova, Angelina;Zitatform
Clarke, Damian, Sonia R. Bhalotra & Angelina Nazarova (2025): The Daughter Penalty. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17817), Bonn, 81 S.
Abstract
"Looking at the earnings profiles of men and women after their first child is born, a number of studies establish that women suffer a larger penalty in earnings than men—a child penalty. Leveraging randomness in the sex of the first birth, we show that the child penalty in the UK is larger when the first born child is a girl. We label this the daughter penalty. Exploiting rich longitudinal survey data, we examine behavioural responses to the birth of a daughter vs. a son to illuminate the underpinnings of the daughter penalty. We find that the birth of a daughter triggers more household specialisation than the birth of a son, with mothers taking on a larger share of household chores and childcare. Mothers suffer a daughter penalty in mental health, while fathers report more satisfaction with their relationship. Our findings imply that girls and boys in the UK are, on average, growing up in different home environments, with girls growing up in households that, by multiple markers, are more gender-regressive. This is potentially a mechanism for the inter-generational transmission of gendered norms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen als: , 1564 -
Literaturhinweis
Gender convergence in all areas: Is it a myth? (2025)
Coskun Dalgic, Sena;Zitatform
Coskun Dalgic, Sena (2025): Gender convergence in all areas: Is it a myth? In: IAB-Forum H. 29.08.2025, 2025-08-27. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20250829.02
Abstract
"While men and women are increasingly found in the same occupations, a surprising trend has emerged: Sectors are becoming more gender-segregated over time. Are these patterns shaped by discriminatory hiring practices or by individual preferences? Examining this question offers new insights into the complex dynamics behind gendered labour market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Beteiligte aus dem IAB
Coskun Dalgic, Sena; -
Literaturhinweis
Parental labor market penalties during two years of COVID-19 (2025)
Zitatform
De Paola, Maria & Salvatore Lattanzio (2025): Parental labor market penalties during two years of COVID-19. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 23, H. 1, S. 327-355. DOI:10.1007/s11150-024-09728-3
Abstract
"We use a matched employer-employee dataset covering the universe of employees in the Italian private sector to compare labor market outcomes of mothers and fathers during the pandemic. We find that mothers experienced a larger penalty in terms of reduced labor market earnings compared to fathers (−14.1 vs. −6.9 %) in 2020 and the first half of 2021. In contrast, starting from July 2021, we observe similar trends in mothers’ and fathers’ earnings. Evidence highlighting differences in penalties according to the sector of activity (essential vs. non-essential and easiness of access to work from home), the type of contract, the age of children, and the pre-pandemic mother-father pay gap suggests that both demand and supply factors have played a role in explaining the gendered impact of COVID-19." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Chances or Choices? How We Think Parenthood Shapes Our Own and Others' Careers (2025)
Zitatform
El Haj, Morien, Axana Dalle, Elsy Verhofstadt, Luc Van Ootegem & Stijn Baert (2025): Chances or Choices? How We Think Parenthood Shapes Our Own and Others' Careers. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17995), Bonn, 22 S.
Abstract
"This letter contributes to the literature on gender disparities in professional life by exploring how men and women perceive the impact of parenthood on career outcomes. It does so through the lens of perceived employer-given opportunities ('chances') and perceived own career-related behaviour ('choices'). We focus on how employees perceive this impact not only on their own careers but also on those of other parents. To this end, we survey a probability sample of 1,060 employees in Belgium. We find that fathers perceive a less negative impact of parenthood on their own careers than mothers do, in terms of both chances and choices. Additionally, mothers perceive greater career penalties for other mothers than they report for themselves. These insights are valuable in understanding how self-fulfilling prophecies may shape parents' careers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
The Parenthood Penalty in Creative Occupations: How the Covid-19 Pandemic Made Existing Inequalities Worse (2025)
Zitatform
Feder, Tal, Rebecca Florisson, Dave O’Brien, Mark Taylor & Siobhan McAndrew (2025): The Parenthood Penalty in Creative Occupations: How the Covid-19 Pandemic Made Existing Inequalities Worse. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 52, H. 4, S. 615-649. DOI:10.1177/07308884241312897
Abstract
"Creative occupations are well-known for inequalities and exclusions. This article focuses on one such excluded group—creative workers who are the parents of young children—to examine the impact of the pandemic on their creative careers. We use the Household Quarterly Labour Force Survey, a large and nationally representative database of UK workers covering the period of 2015–2021. We run regression analyses to estimate the multidimensional impact of working in the creative field, gender, parenting and the pandemic period. The analysis demonstrates a clear parenthood penalty in creative occupations. For women with young children working in the ‘core’ creative occupations this penalty equates to working around nine fewer hours per week. This penalty is in addition to the general penalty for being a woman parent (25 fewer hours per week). The pandemic saw a further hit to ‘core’ creative parents’ working hours, and mothers suffered the heaviest reduction in working hours. Reduced working hours will exacerbate existing gendered inequalities in creative occupations. Based on the figures presented in the article, more must be done by policy interventions and employer activity to prevent even greater exclusions from creative work for mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Harmonizing French and German administrative data on maternal employment: A practical guide how to create comparable data sets from DADS-EDP and SIAB (2025)
Filser, Andreas ; Amend, Inga Marie ; Wagner, Sander ; Frodermann, Corinna ; Achard, Pascal ; Gaede, Inga;Zitatform
Filser, Andreas, Pascal Achard, Inga Marie Amend, Corinna Frodermann, Inga Gaede & Sander Wagner (2025): Harmonizing French and German administrative data on maternal employment. A practical guide how to create comparable data sets from DADS-EDP and SIAB. (SocArXiv papers), 18 S. DOI:10.31219/osf.io/rcsng
Abstract
"This paper provides a guide how to harmonize large-scale administrative datasets from France (DADS-EDP) and Germany (SIAB) for comparative social science research. France and Germany. While both datasets offer rich, longitudinal information on individual employment trajectories which can be augmented with firm-level information, they differ in structure, sample coverage, and variable coding. Harmonizing these datasets unlocks new potential for comparative research, particularly in examining the labor market trajectories of mothers in both countries. This paper outlines the necessary steps to harmonize these data sources and gives an overview on the set of harmonized variables. The harmonized data is of significant value for researchers, providing a foundation for comparative studies on labor market outcomes in France and Germany, especially in the context of welfare state differences and their importance within the EU and worldwide. The code for harmonization is provided for further adaptation to specific research questions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Weiterführende Informationen
-
Literaturhinweis
Perceived fairness and legitimacy of parental workplace discrimination (2025)
Zitatform
Gerich, Joachim & Martina Beham-Rabanser (2025): Perceived fairness and legitimacy of parental workplace discrimination. In: Community, work & family, S. 1-27. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2025.2453175
Abstract
"Parental discrimination has been shown to be related to several risks, including impaired health, increased job stress, and decreased job satisfaction, which calls for increased awareness of parental discrimination. This paper analyzes fairness and legitimacy judgments of unequal treatment based on parental status at work and the antecedents that influence these judgments. Stereotypes of symbolic vilification that suggest lower commitment due to caring responsibilities, and symbolic amplification, which refers to rational economic organizational needs, are expected to rationalize discrimination. Moreover, we expect specific values and ideologies to be related to judgments of fairness and legitimacy, mediated by resonance with symbolic vilification and amplification. Analyses are based on survey data from a sample of employees aged between 20 and 45 years (n = 376). Respondents' evaluations of parental discrimination were measured using two fictional cases. The results suggest that greater acceptance of vilifying and amplifying justifications is triggered by a stronger preference for the ideal worker norm and traditional gender role expectations. Women tend to view discrimination as more unfair and illegitimate than men, while men's judgments are more strongly driven by economic reasoning." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Does the child penalty strike twice? (2025)
Zitatform
Gørtz, Mette, Sarah Sander & Almudena Sevilla (2025): Does the child penalty strike twice? In: European Economic Review, Jg. 172. DOI:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2024.104942
Abstract
"This paper compares the labor market trajectories of grandparents before and after the arrival of their first grandchild. We find gender gaps in earnings of 4 and 10 percent five and ten years, respectively, after the first grandchild. These effects are driven by changes in women’s labor supply at both the intensive andextensive margin. We provide evidence from multiple data sources that grandmothers’ caregiving complements formal daycare, thereby offering essential flexibility for young parents. We document that grandchild penalties were larger in earlier periods characterized by low availability of daycare, shorter parental leave, and an earlier retirement age. Linking register data to geographical variations in daycare centers reveals that local daycare coverage is not associated with grandchild penalties. Detailed time use data show that grandmothers carry larger responsibilities for childcare than grandfathers. Recognizing the complementary nature of grandmaternal childcare is important for the design of policies attempting to reduce child penalties for both mothers and grandmothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Damned if You Do, Damned if You Don’t?: Experimental Evidence from Germany on Hiring Discrimination Against Mothers with Short Family Leave (2025)
Zitatform
Hipp, Lena (2025): Damned if You Do, Damned if You Don’t? Experimental Evidence from Germany on Hiring Discrimination Against Mothers with Short Family Leave. In: Work and occupations, S. 1-32. DOI:10.1177/07308884251360325
Abstract
"Can women overcome motherhood penalties by quickly returning to their jobs after childbirth? Do employers discriminate against fathers who take extended family leave? To answer these questions, I exploit some unique features of Germany's parental leave and job application system. My field experiment shows that mothers who only took the mandatory leave of two months are less likely to be invited to a job interview than mothers who stayed home for a year. There is, however, no difference between fathers who took short versus long periods of leave. The results of the supplementary laboratory experiment support my theoretical claim that women who “lean in” and violate the norm of being “a good mother” are judged more negatively than norm-violating men, who benefit from their culturally ascribed higher status in professional settings. My study hence underscores that women are required to enact traditional family roles to “fit in” but men are not. Fathers have more leeway in their behaviors and are evaluated according to a more flexible range of criteria than mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
National Work-Family Policies and Gender Earnings Inequality in 26 OECD Countries, 1999 to 2019 (2025)
Zitatform
Hook, Jennifer L. & Meiying Li (2025): National Work-Family Policies and Gender Earnings Inequality in 26 OECD Countries, 1999 to 2019. In: Socius, Jg. 11, S. 1-21. DOI:10.1177/23780231251360042
Abstract
"The authors investigate whether work-family policies help incorporate women into the labor market, but exacerbate the gender earnings gap and motherhood penalty, especially for mothers and/or tertiary-educated women. The authors use repeated cross-sectional income data from the Luxembourg Income Study database (1999–2019) (n = 26 countries, 280 country-years, 2.9 million employees) combined with an original collection of indicators on work-family policies, labor market conditions, and gender norms. The authors find that only one work-family policy, long paid parental leave (longer than six months), is associated with a larger gender earnings gap for mothers and tertiary-educated women. The negative relationship between long paid leave and women’s earning percentile is not well explained by selection, full-time status, work hours, experience, occupation, or sector, suggesting discrimination mechanisms. These findings add to the growing evidence that long paid leave specifically, as opposed to work-family policies more generally, cleaves the labor market outcomes of women from men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))