Child Penalty – Lohneinbußen durch Elternschaft
Wer Kinder hat, wird bestraft? Für viele Eltern, allen voran Mütter, gilt das in der Tat. Schließlich sind sie während der ersten Lebensjahre ihres Nachwuchses häufig gezwungen, ihre Erwerbstätigkeit einzuschränken oder aufzugeben – was sich im Laufe des Arbeitslebens in Form erheblicher Gehaltseinbußen auswirkt. Dieses Phänomen – zunächst meist als „motherhood wage gap“, inzwischen als „child penalty“ bezeichnet – hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einem volkswirtschaftlichen Trendthema entwickelt.
In diesem Themendossier finden Sie thematisch einschlägige Literatur. Mit dem Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
Verwandte Dossiers:
Gender Pay Gap – Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnungleichheit in Deutschland
Female breadwinner – Erwerbsentscheidungen von Frauen im Haushaltskontext
Gender und Arbeitsmarkt
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Literaturhinweis
The large family penalty in Italy: Poverty and eligibility to minimum incomes (2024)
Zitatform
Aprea, Massimo, Giovanni Gallo & Michele Raitano (2024): The large family penalty in Italy: Poverty and eligibility to minimum incomes. In: International Journal of Social Welfare. DOI:10.1111/ijsw.12668
Abstract
"This paper argues that public policies, including minimum income schemes (MIS), should devote specific attention to large families, in terms of both benefits' generosity and targeting, to avoid unfair penalizations. Adopting a child-centered approach to the definition of family size, and using a unique administrative-survey linked database, this study provides two main contributions for the Italian case. First, it documents the consumption-based absolute poverty outcomes according to sibling size, highlighting that large families are overexposed to this specific type of economic deprivation. Second, it investigates to what extent the household size and the number of children tend to be a penalizing factor for social benefit receipt. A key finding is that large families in absolute poverty are penalized in terms of both entitlement and generosity of MIS with the peculiar equivalence scale adopted by the scheme playing a crucial role." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Heterogeneity in the US gender wage gap (2024)
Zitatform
Bach, Philipp, Victor Chernozhukov & Martin Spindler (2024): Heterogeneity in the US gender wage gap. In: Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A, Statistics in Society, Jg. 187, H. 1, S. 209-230. DOI:10.1093/jrsssa/qnad091
Abstract
"As a measure of gender inequality, the gender wage gap has come to play an important role both in academic research and the public debate. In 2016, the majority of full-time employed women in the United States earned significantly less than comparable men. The extent to which women were affected by gender inequality in earnings, however, depended greatly on socio-economic characteristics, such as marital status or educational attainment. In this paper, we analyse data from the 2016 American Community Survey using a high-dimensional wage regression and applying double lasso to quantify heterogeneity in the gender wage gap. We find that the wage gap varied substantially across women and that the magnitude of the gap varied primarily by marital status, having children at home, race, occupation, industry, and educational attainment. These insights are helpful in designing policies that can reduce discrimination and unequal pay more effectively." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The role of non-base compensation in explaining the motherhood wage gap: Evidence from Italy (2024)
Zitatform
Badaoui, Eliane, Eleonora Matteazzi & Vincenzo Prete (2024): The role of non-base compensation in explaining the motherhood wage gap: Evidence from Italy. In: Kyklos, S. 1-22. DOI:10.1111/kykl.12393
Abstract
"This paper underlines the importance of accounting for non-base compensation in explaining the motherhood wage gap. We consider two alternative measures of hourly wage using Italian EU-SILC data from 2007 to 2019: the base-wage and the full-wage . The former refers to the contractual base wage, while the latter includes performance-based bonuses, productivity bonuses, commissions, pay incentives, and other extra payments. We address the endogeneity issues of motherhood and examine the effect of motherhood status across various quantiles of the wage distribution for the two hourly wage measures. Empirical findings provide evidence of a motherhood base-wage premium, which becomes nonsignificant when using the full-wage measure, suggesting that non-base compensation is a source of inequality for mothers. These findings are consistent across the wage distribution. Exploring potential heterogeneity across macro-regions and periods, we find no notable regional disparities except minor distinctions for the Southern regions, alongside a decline in the base-wage premium over time and the emergence of a full-wage penalty in recent years. A comparative analysis with a sample of men reveals that fathers enjoy a premium with both wage measures. Nevertheless, fatherhood is also associated with reduced extra remunerations, yet to a lesser extent than motherhood." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Reducing the Child Penalty by Incentivizing Maternal Part-Time Work? (2024)
Zitatform
Baertsch, Laurenz & Malte Sandner (2024): Reducing the Child Penalty by Incentivizing Maternal Part-Time Work? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17109), Bonn, 47 S.
Abstract
"Worldwide governments discuss how to increase maternal labor market participation and to reduce the child penalty, i.e. labor market earnings losses after child birth. This study analyses the long run effects of a German paid parental leave reform, which aims to increase maternal labour market participation and to reduce the child penalty by financially incentivizing maternal part-time work during the two years following child birth. Using German social security records, we exploit the fact that only mothers whose child is born in or after July 2015 are eligible for the new part-time PL option in a Difference-in-Differences strategy. We find that the policy increased the probability that high income mothers return to work during the first year after child birth by 2.1 - 2.8pp ( ≈ 15 - 20%). However, the policy does not impact maternal employment along the intensive margin (part-time or full-time work) in the long run, leaving maternal labor market participation and the child penalty unaffected." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Long-Run Effects of California's Paid Family Leave Act On Women's Careers and Childbearing: New Evidence from a Regression Discontinuity Design and U.S. Tax Data (2024)
Zitatform
Bailey, Martha J., Tanya Byker, Elena Patel & Shanthi Ramnath (2024): The Long-Run Effects of California's Paid Family Leave Act On Women's Careers and Childbearing: New Evidence from a Regression Discontinuity Design and U.S. Tax Data. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16756), Bonn, 44 S.
Abstract
"We use administrative tax data to analyze the cumulative, long-run effects of California's 2004 Paid Family Leave Act (CPFL) on women's employment, earnings, and childbearing. A regression-discontinuity design exploits the sharp increase in the weeks of paid leave available under the law. We find no evidence that CPFL increased employment, boosted earnings, or encouraged childbearing, suggesting that CPFL had little effect on the gender pay gap or child penalty. For first-time mothers, we find that CPFL reduced employment and earnings roughly a decade after they gave birth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Trapped in the care burden: occupational downward mobility of Italian couples after childbirth (2024)
Zitatform
Barbieri, Teresa, Michele Bavaro & Valeria Cirillo (2024): Trapped in the care burden: occupational downward mobility of Italian couples after childbirth. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 1475), Essen, 36 S.
Abstract
"How does childbirth impact the career paths of men and women within the same household? To what extent does the unpaid care work related to this event contribute to the downward mobility experienced by women in a highly flexible labour market like Italy? Drawing on feminist and labour market studies, this article examines how caregiving responsibilities, particularly childcare, influence downward employment transitions for men and women in couples, specifically from full-time to part-time, from higher-paid to lower-paid jobs, and from employment to unemployment. The study also employs latent class analysis to map out variations in within-household inequality experienced after childbirth among couples. To achieve this, we utilize a unique survey-administrative linked dataset. The findings highlight significant penalties faced by women, not only immediately after childbirth but persisting for up to three years afterwards. Moreover, the latent class analysis reveals a small proportion of pro-female households compared to egalitarian and pro-male classes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Employees' perceptions of co-workers' internal promotion penalties: the role of gender, parenthood and part-time (2024)
Zitatform
Brüggemann, Ole (2024): Employees' perceptions of co-workers' internal promotion penalties: the role of gender, parenthood and part-time. In: European Societies, Jg. 26, H. 3, S. 773-801. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2023.2270049
Abstract
"Much research has focused on penalties by gender, parenthood and part-time work for hiring processes or wages, but their role for promotions is less clear. This study analyzes perceived chances for internal promotion, using a factorial survey design. Employees in 540 larger German (>100 employees) firms were asked to rate the likelihood of internal promotion for vignettes describing fictitious co-workers who varied in terms of gender, parenthood, working hours as well as age, earnings, qualification, tenure and job performance. Results show that promotion chances are perceived as significantly lower for co-workers who are women (gender penalty), mothers (motherhood penalty) and part-time workers (part-time penalty). Fathers and childless men (co-workers) are not evaluated differently (no fatherhood premium or penalty), and neither does part-time employment seem to be perceived as a double penalty for male co-workers. All three perceived promotion penalties are more pronounced among female employees, mothers and part-time employees. These findings show that employees perceive differential promotion chances for co-workers which indicate actual differences due to discrimination, selective applications or structural dead-ends. Either way, perceived promotion penalties are likely consequential in guiding employee's application behavior and hence can contribute to the persistence of vertical gender segregation in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Elternzeiten während der Covid-19-Pandemie in Deutschland: Frauen, die in der Pandemie Mutter wurden, unterbrechen ihre Erwerbstätigkeit länger (2024)
Zitatform
Bächmann, Ann-Christin, Corinna Frodermann & Katharina Wrohlich (2024): Elternzeiten während der Covid-19-Pandemie in Deutschland: Frauen, die in der Pandemie Mutter wurden, unterbrechen ihre Erwerbstätigkeit länger. (IAB-Kurzbericht 17/2024), Nürnberg, 8 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.KB.2417
Abstract
"Die Geburt eines Kindes und die damit einhergehende Erwerbsunterbrechung haben für Mütter erhebliche Folgen für ihre weitere Karriere. Insbesondere die Dauer der Unterbrechung spielt hierfür eine wichtige Rolle. Infolge der Covid-19-Pandemie gab es weitreichende Umbrüche auf dem Arbeitsmarkt, etwa einen drastischen Anstieg der Kurzarbeit sowie zentrale Einschnitte in der außerhäuslichen Kinderbetreuung. Vor diesem Hintergrund haben die Autorinnen analysiert, ob sich familienbedingte Erwerbsunterbrechungen von Müttern während der Pandemie verlängert haben." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
What Works for Working Couples? Work Arrangements, Maternal Labor Supply, and the Division of Home Production (2024)
Ciasullo, Ludovica; Uccioli, Martina;Zitatform
Ciasullo, Ludovica & Martina Uccioli (2024): What Works for Working Couples? Work Arrangements, Maternal Labor Supply, and the Division of Home Production. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16991), Bonn, 87 S.
Abstract
"We document how a change to work arrangements reduces the child penalty in labor supply for women, and that the consequent more equal distribution of household income does not translate into a more equal division of home production between mothers and fathers. The Australian 2009 Fair Work Act explicitly entitled parents of young children to request a (reasonable) change in work arrangements. Leveraging variation in the timing of the law, timing of childbirth, and the bite of the law across different occupations and industries, we establish three main results. First, the Fair Work Act was used by new mothers to reduce their weekly working hours without renouncing their permanent contract, hence maintaining a regular schedule. Second, with this work arrangement, working mothers’ child penalty declined from a 47 percent drop in hours worked to a 38 percent drop. Third, while this implies a significant shift towards equality in the female- and male-shares of household income, we do not observe any changes in the female (disproportionate) share of home production." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Changing Fertility and Heterogeneous Motherhood Effects: Revisiting the Effects of a Parental Benefits Reform (2024)
Zitatform
Fitzenberger, Bernd & Arnim Seidlitz (2024): Changing Fertility and Heterogeneous Motherhood Effects: Revisiting the Effects of a Parental Benefits Reform. (IAB-Discussion Paper 08/2024), Nürnberg, 58 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2408
Abstract
"Mit einem semiparametrischen „Event-Study-Ansatz“ unter Verwendung einer Kontrollgruppe schätzen wir den Effekt der Geburt des ersten Kindes auf Verdienste und Erwerbsbeteiligung der Mütter, die sogenannte „child penalty“. Wir behandeln Mutterschaft als ein „zeitlich gestaffeltes Treatment“. Außerdem untersuchen wir den Effekt des 2007 eingeführten Elterngeldes auf die „child penalty“ - unter Berücksichtigung der Fertilitätseffekte. Ein großer neuer Datensatz, der Daten aus zwei administrativen Quellen miteinander verknüpft, enthält Informationen über alle Geburten. Die Reform hat geringe positive mittelfristige Auswirkungen auf den Beschäftigungsverlauf. Sie verändert die Selektion in die Fertilität und es zeigen sich gruppenspezifische Effektunterschiede. Jedoch hat die Reform die durchschnittliche „child penalty“ kaum verringert." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
The gender gap in lifetime earnings: A microsimulation approach (2024)
Zitatform
Glaubitz, Rick, Astrid Harnack-Eber & Miriam Wetter (2024): The gender gap in lifetime earnings: A microsimulation approach. In: Labour, S. 1-50. DOI:10.1111/labr.12274
Abstract
"To obtain a more complete understanding of the persisting gender earnings gap in Germany, this paper investigates both the cross-sectional and lifetime dimension of gender inequalities. Based on a dynamic microsimulation model, we analyse how gender differences accumulate over work lives to examine the lifetime dimension of the gender gap. We estimate an average gender gap in lifetime earnings of 51.5 per cent for birth cohorts 1964–72. We show that this unadjusted gender lifetime earnings gap increases strongly with the number of children, ranging from 17.3 per cent for childless women to 68.0 per cent for women with three or more children. Results from a counterfactual analysis approach show an adjusted gender gap in lifetime earnings of around 10 per cent, suggesting that the gender gap in lifetime earnings is rather driven by gender differences in observable characteristics than by differences in rewards." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Family and Career: An Analysis across Europe and North America (2024)
Zitatform
Guirola, Luis, Laura Hospido & Andrea Weber (2024): Family and Career: An Analysis across Europe and North America. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17018), Bonn, 30 S.
Abstract
"Using data on 17 countries in Europe and North America, we compare the career trajectories of mothers and fathers and of women and men without children across cohorts, and at different points of their life cycle. There is wide variation across countries in employment and earnings gaps at age 30. At age 50, however, employment between mothers and non-mothers have closed in most countries. We also observe convergence in employment gaps between mothers and fathers by age 50, but these gaps do not fully close. Motherhood gaps in earnings also close by age 50 between mothers and non-mothers, particularly among the highly educated. But there is strong persistence in earnings gaps between mothers and fathers even among highly educated parents. The main reasons for the remaining gaps at later stages in the life-cycle are part-time work among women and fatherhood premia as fathers' earnings outperform non-fathers' over their life-cycle." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen als: Working Papers, 2415 -
Literaturhinweis
Baby Bumps in the Road: The Impact of Parenthood on Job Performance, Human Capital, and Career Advancement (2024)
Healy, Olivia; Heissel, Jennifer A.;Zitatform
Healy, Olivia & Jennifer A. Heissel (2024): Baby Bumps in the Road: The Impact of Parenthood on Job Performance, Human Capital, and Career Advancement. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16743), Bonn, 79 S.
Abstract
"This paper explores whether and why a maternal "child penalty" to earnings would emerge even without changes in employment and hours worked. Using a matched event study design, we trace monthly changes in determinants of wages (job performance, human capital accumulation, and promotions). Data come from a usefully unusual setting with required multiyear employment and detailed personnel data: the United States Marine Corps. Mothers' job performance initially declines, and gaps in promotion grow through 24 months postbirth. Fathers' physical fitness performance drops somewhat but recovers. These patterns lead mothers to earn relatively lower wages, even absent changes in employment postbirth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gleichstellung am Arbeitsmarkt?: Aktuelle Herausforderungen und Potenziale von Frauenerwerbstätigkeit in Deutschland (2024)
Hermann, Michaela; Kunze, Luisa; Böker, Charlotte;Zitatform
Hermann, Michaela & Luisa Kunze (2024): Gleichstellung am Arbeitsmarkt? Aktuelle Herausforderungen und Potenziale von Frauenerwerbstätigkeit in Deutschland. (Factsheet / Bertelsmann Stiftung), Gütersloh, 14 S. DOI:10.11586/2023085
Abstract
"Die Erwerbstätigenquote von Frauen in Deutschland ist mit knapp 78 Prozent im europäischen Vergleich eine der höchsten. Da jedoch fast die Hälfte aller 20- bis 64-jährigen Frauen (48 Prozent) in Teilzeit arbeitet, ist ihre tatsächliche Erwerbsstundenzahl vergleichsweise gering. Dabei sind Frauen häufig hochqualifiziert und würden auch gerne mehr arbeiten – wenn die Rahmenbedingungen dafür besser wären. Angesichts dieses ungenutzten Potenzials ist es sowohl aus gleichstellungspolitischer als auch wirtschaftlicher Perspektive von höchster Relevanz, die Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen zu erhöhen. Gerade in Zeiten eines beschleunigten Strukturwandels sowie zunehmenden Fachkräftemangels braucht es differenzierte Maßnahmen, um die Frauenerwerbstätigkeit zu stärken. Eine höhere Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen kann nicht nur helfen, Diskriminierung am Arbeitsmarkt zu mindern, sondern trägt auch zur Fachkräftesicherung und zu wirtschaftlichem Wohlstand bei. Gleichzeitig können sich Frauen beruflich freier und umfassender entwickeln, sind finanziell unabhängiger und beugen mit einem existenzsichernden Erwerbseinkommen der Armut im Alter vor." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Child Penalties and the Gender Gap in Home Production and the Labor Market (2024)
Zitatform
Koopmans, Pim, Max van Lent & Jim Been (2024): Child Penalties and the Gender Gap in Home Production and the Labor Market. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16871), Bonn, 30 S.
Abstract
"The consequence of the arrival of children for the gender wage gap - known as the child penalty - is substantial and has been documented for many countries. Little is still known about the impact of having children beyond paid work in the labor market, such as home production. In this paper we estimate - deploying an event study with Dutch survey data - the child penalty in both home production and the labor market. In line with the literature we find no labor market effects for men. For women we find a strong reduction in work hours and lower wages. However, we find an increase in home production for women roughly similar to the decline in paid work. Consequently, time allocated to the labor market plus home production is roughly equal across gender before and after the arrival of children. This result rejects the hypothesis that women substitute paid work for leisure after the arrival of children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Long-Run Effects of Incentivizing Work after Childbirth (2024)
Kuka, Elira; Shenhav, Na'ama;Zitatform
Kuka, Elira & Na'ama Shenhav (2024): Long-Run Effects of Incentivizing Work after Childbirth. In: The American economic review, Jg. 114, H. 6, S. 1692-1722. DOI:10.1257/aer.20220792
Abstract
"This paper identifies the impact of increasing post-childbirth work incentives on mothers’ long-run careers. We exploit variation in work incentives across mothers based on the timing of a first birth and eligibility for the 1993 expansion of the Earned Income Tax Credit. Ten to nineteen years after a first birth, single mothers who were exposed to the expansion immediately after birth (“early ”), rather than 3–6 years later (“late”), have 0.62 more years of work experience and 4.2 percent higher earnings conditional on working. We show that higher earnings are primarily explained by improved wages due to greater work experience. (JEL H24, H31, J16, J22, J31)" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Low-skilled immigrants and the relative wages of high-skilled mothers (2024)
Kwak, Eunhye;Zitatform
Kwak, Eunhye (2024): Low-skilled immigrants and the relative wages of high-skilled mothers. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 22, H. 3, S. 1221-1241. DOI:10.1007/s11150-023-09686-2
Abstract
"This paper examines the effects of low-skilled immigration inflows on the motherhood gaps in wages among high-skilled women. Applying IV methods to U.S. census and ACS data, this paper first confirms previous findings in the literature that mothers are less willing to increase their work hours than childless women with inflows of low-skilled immigrants. However, the main contribution of the paper is showing that as the low-skilled labor supply increases, high-skilled mothers achieve more wage improvement than otherwise identical nonmothers. The findings in this paper imply that an increase in the low-skilled labor supply reduces the gender pay gap among high-skilled native workers, and most importantly, it is driven by women with children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Is There Really a Child Penalty in the Long Run? New Evidence from IVF Treatments (2024)
Lundborg, Petter; Plug, Erik; Würtz Rasmussen, Astrid;Zitatform
Lundborg, Petter, Erik Plug & Astrid Würtz Rasmussen (2024): Is There Really a Child Penalty in the Long Run? New Evidence from IVF Treatments. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16959), Bonn, 31 S.
Abstract
"Newly matched data on in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatments are used to estimate the long-run consequences of children on the labor market earnings of women and men (often referred to as child penalties). We measure long-run child penalties in IVF-treated families by comparing the earnings of successfully and unsuccessfully first-time treated women and men up to 25 years after the first IVF treatment. In the short run, we find a large penalty immediately after the birth of the first child. In the long run, however, we find that the child penalty fades out, disappears completely after 10 years, and even turns into a child premium after 15 years, offsetting the initial setbacks experienced when children are young. Our findings therefore challenge the widely held view that children are the primary drivers behind the long-run gender gap in earnings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender gaps in South Korea's labour market: children explain most of the gender employment gap, but little of the gender wage gap (2024)
Zitatform
Stansbury, Anna, Jacob Funk Kirkegaard & Karen Dynan (2024): Gender gaps in South Korea's labour market: children explain most of the gender employment gap, but little of the gender wage gap. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 31, H. 17, S. 1726-1731. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2023.2206103
Abstract
"South Korea’s gender wage and employment gaps are among the largest in the OECD. Using labour force survey data over 2010–19, we estimate gender wage and employment gaps, and child earnings penalties, for women aged 25–54. We show (i) that the large gender gaps in South Korea’s labour market are mostly not a function of differential sorting by gender along education, occupation, or industry lines, (ii) that caring for children (and, perhaps increasingly, for the elderly) is the major factor inhibiting women’s labour force participation, and (iii) that large gender wage gaps exist even for women without care responsibilities. These findings suggest that improving opportunities for work–family balance is crucial to helping increase women’s labour force participation, but may do little to close gender wage gaps: other major obstacles also appear to stand in the way of Korean women’s full inclusion in the labour force." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Parents' hourly wages in female same-sex and different-sex couples: The role of partner's gender and employers (2024)
Zitatform
Stückradt, Katharina, Eva Jaspers, Ruben van Gaalen & Weverthon Machado (2024): Parents' hourly wages in female same-sex and different-sex couples: The role of partner's gender and employers. In: Journal of Family Research, Jg. 36, S. 66-84. DOI:10.20377/jfr-960
Abstract
"Objective: This research article investigates the relationship between parenthood and wages, considering the partner's gender and the influence of employers on wage trajectories for birth and non-birth mothers and fathers. Background: It offers a novel examination whether the gender of the partner affects the wage outcomes for birth mothers and explores the differential impact of employers on wages for birth and non-birth mothers, using Dutch register data. Method: Utilizing OLS regression, Heckman selection, and fixed-effects models, this study focuses on all Dutch couples who had their first child between 2008 and 2014 in the Netherlands, from two years prior to the birth until two years after birth. Results: Consistent with human capital theory, the findings reveal a consistent and unfavourable wage development for birth mothers, regardless of whether they are in same-sex couples or different-sex couples. The wage development for non-birth mothers in female same-sex couples resembles that of fathers, showing a more positive trajectory compared to birth mothers. Furthermore, the analysis indicates that employers do not differentiate in their treatment of birth and non-birth mothers, suggesting that biological constraints associated with motherhood impact wages of birth mothers, while both their male and female partners ’ wages do not decline. Conclusion: The study contributes to the existing literature in family sociology, highlighting the need for policies and interventions that address the specific challenges faced by birth mothers in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))