Child Penalty – Lohneinbußen durch Elternschaft
Wer Kinder hat, wird bestraft? Für viele Eltern, allen voran Mütter, gilt das in der Tat. Schließlich sind sie während der ersten Lebensjahre ihres Nachwuchses häufig gezwungen, ihre Erwerbstätigkeit einzuschränken oder aufzugeben – was sich im Laufe des Arbeitslebens in Form erheblicher Gehaltseinbußen auswirkt. Dieses Phänomen – zunächst meist als „motherhood wage gap“, inzwischen als „child penalty“ bezeichnet – hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einem volkswirtschaftlichen Trendthema entwickelt.
In diesem Themendossier finden Sie thematisch einschlägige Literatur. Mit dem Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
Verwandte Dossiers:
Gender Pay Gap – Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnungleichheit in Deutschland
Female breadwinner – Erwerbsentscheidungen von Frauen im Haushaltskontext
Gender und Arbeitsmarkt
-
Literaturhinweis
The Contribution of Employee-Led and Employer-Led Work Flexibility to the Motherhood Wage Gap (2025)
Zitatform
Adams, Abi, Mathias Fjællegaard Jensen & Barbara Petrongolo (2025): The Contribution of Employee-Led and Employer-Led Work Flexibility to the Motherhood Wage Gap. In: AEA papers and proceedings, Jg. 115, S. 243-247. DOI:10.1257/pandp.20251015
Abstract
"We analyze the contribution of job flexibility to the gender wage gap amongst Danish parents with a professional degree. We use a supervised machine learning approach to measure job flexibility from job vacancy text. We distinguish between employee-led and employer-led flexibility. We estimate pooled Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions to analyze the contribution of occupation-level exposure to flexibility to gender wage gaps. We find that employee-and employer-led flexibility contribute in opposite directions to the unexplained component of the motherhood penalty in earnings and wages for those with a professional bachelor's degree." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Parental Leave Intentions, Gender, and Job Discrimination: Insights From a Swedish Field Experiment (2025)
Zitatform
Ahmed, Ali, Mimmi Gustafsson, Johanna Rydén & Lydia Wallin Claesson (2025): Parental Leave Intentions, Gender, and Job Discrimination: Insights From a Swedish Field Experiment. In: Labour, S. 1-13. DOI:10.1111/labr.12292
Abstract
"This paper reports on a field experiment investigating hiring discrimination in the Swedish labor market against job candidates signaling intentions to take part-time parental leave. Swedish law prohibits labor market discrimination related to parental leave. We conducted a correspondence test, sending job applications to 960 employers in one male-dominated and one female-dominated low-skilled occupation. Applicants who indicated plans for parental leave were significantly less likely to receive job interview invitations, with their chances cut by half compared to those who did not mention such plans. This bias emerged across genders and occupations, revealing a systemic issue in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Homeoffice: Zukunftsvision auf dem Weg zu mehr Gleichberechtigung? (2025)
Zitatform
Alipour, Jean-Victor, Marlene Müller & Nadine Verkühlen (2025): Homeoffice: Zukunftsvision auf dem Weg zu mehr Gleichberechtigung? In: Wirtschaftsdienst, Jg. 105, H. 1, S. 59-63. DOI:10.2478/wd-2025-0017
Abstract
"Der Hauptgrund für die chronisch niedrige Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen im Vergleich zu Männern ist die „Child Penalty“. Das Phänomen beschreibt die beruflichen Nachteile, die Frauen nach der Geburt des ersten Kindes erfahren, während Männer keine Einbußen verzeichnen. Wie beeinflusst Homeoffice diese Gender-Ungleichgewichte? Verringert die Arbeit von zu Hause die Unausgewogenheit in Bezug auf Haus- und Sorgearbeit, Erwerbsbeteiligung und Entlohnung? Während die Literatur starke Hinweise liefert, dass Homeoffice die Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen fördert und teilweise Lohnungleichheiten verringern kann, ist die Auswirkung in Bezug auf Haus- und Sorgearbeit bislang weitgehend unklar." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
-
Literaturhinweis
You Can’t Force Me Into Caregiving: Paternity Leave and the Child Penalty (2025)
Zitatform
Andresen, Martin Eckhoff & Emily Nix (2025): You Can’t Force Me Into Caregiving: Paternity Leave and the Child Penalty. In: The Economic Journal. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueaf057
Abstract
"Children cause large reductions in earnings for mothers but not fathers, a stylised fact known as the “child penalty” that explains a substantial portion of remaining gender income gaps. We evaluate the impact of paternity leave, a policy intended to increase fathers ’ time with their young children and potentially decrease the child penalty by making caregiving more equitable. Despite fathers overwhelmingly taking up this leave, we detect no impacts on child penalties. We additionally find no impact of paternity leave on the amount of leave fathers take for subsequent children, a good proxy for gender norms within couples. Using detailed data on how mothers and fathers take leave, we highlight one possible explanation: fathers approach parental leave very differently than mothers. Fathers are much more likely to take their paternity leave during summer holidays, when their children are already in formal care, and take more part-time leave than mothers. This tendency is stronger among fathers induced to take more leave by paternity leave quotas than fathers in general, suggesting that quota-induced leave may not lead fathers to act as primary caregivers. Consequently, we show descriptive evidence that child penalties are almost 10 percentage points smaller in families where fathers voluntarily take leave than in families where fathers are induced to take leave by paternity leave quotas." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
The large family penalty in Italy: Poverty and eligibility to minimum incomes (2025)
Zitatform
Aprea, Massimo, Giovanni Gallo & Michele Raitano (2025): The large family penalty in Italy: Poverty and eligibility to minimum incomes. In: International Journal of Social Welfare, Jg. 34, H. 1, S. e12668. DOI:10.1111/ijsw.12668
Abstract
"This paper argues that public policies, including minimum income schemes (MIS), should devote specific attention to large families, in terms of both benefits' generosity and targeting, to avoid unfair penalizations. Adopting a child-centered approach to the definition of family size, and using a unique administrative-survey linked database, this study provides two main contributions for the Italian case. First, it documents the consumption-based absolute poverty outcomes according to sibling size, highlighting that large families are overexposed to this specific type of economic deprivation. Second, it investigates to what extent the household size and the number of children tend to be a penalizing factor for social benefit receipt. A key finding is that large families in absolute poverty are penalized in terms of both entitlement and generosity of MIS with the peculiar equivalence scale adopted by the scheme playing a crucial role." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
When Mothers Out-Earn Fathers: Effects on Fathers' Decisions to Take Paternity and Parental Leave (2025)
Zitatform
Biasi, Paola, Maria De Paola & Francesca Gioia (2025): When Mothers Out-Earn Fathers: Effects on Fathers' Decisions to Take Paternity and Parental Leave. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17601), Bonn, 36 S.
Abstract
"This study investigates the influence of the male breadwinner norm on fathers' decisions regarding childcare responsibilities. We study the complex interplay between economic factors and gender norms in shaping the division of household labor within families by analyzing the impact a breadwinning mother has on fathers' choices regarding paternity leave (fully subsidized) and parental leave (partially or not subsidized). We exploit administrative data, provided by the Italian National Security Institute (INPS), including demographic and working characteristics of both parents together with information on the use of paternity and parental leave by fathers in the 2013-2023 period. We find that, in line with the "doing gender" hypothesis, when the leave is fully subsidized, as for paternity leave, fathers are less likely to engage in childcare when their wives earn more than they do. In contrast, this dynamic does not apply in cases of parental leave, where the economic costs of aligning with the gender norm are substantial. The effects we find are robust when replacing the actual probability of there being an out-earning mother with the potential probability and are amplified by the salience of the gender identity norm." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Beliefs and Realities of Work and Care After Childbirth (2025)
Zitatform
Caplin, Andrew, Søren Leth-Petersen & Christopher Tonetti (2025): Beliefs and Realities of Work and Care After Childbirth. (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20423), London, 32 S.
Abstract
"Models of female labor supply routinely assume that women have accurate expectations about post-birth employment, but little is known about whether this assumption holds. We use a 2019 state-contingent survey of 11,000 Danish women linked to administrative data to compare pre-birth beliefs to realized outcomes. Mothers accurately anticipate long-run return to work but systematically overestimate how soon it will occur. Miscalibration stems from two belief errors—about partner leave and own labor supply—which interact and persist even among second-time mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
The Daughter Penalty (2025)
Clarke, Damian; Bhalotra, Sonia R.; Nazarova, Angelina;Zitatform
Clarke, Damian, Sonia R. Bhalotra & Angelina Nazarova (2025): The Daughter Penalty. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17817), Bonn, 81 S.
Abstract
"Looking at the earnings profiles of men and women after their first child is born, a number of studies establish that women suffer a larger penalty in earnings than men—a child penalty. Leveraging randomness in the sex of the first birth, we show that the child penalty in the UK is larger when the first born child is a girl. We label this the daughter penalty. Exploiting rich longitudinal survey data, we examine behavioural responses to the birth of a daughter vs. a son to illuminate the underpinnings of the daughter penalty. We find that the birth of a daughter triggers more household specialisation than the birth of a son, with mothers taking on a larger share of household chores and childcare. Mothers suffer a daughter penalty in mental health, while fathers report more satisfaction with their relationship. Our findings imply that girls and boys in the UK are, on average, growing up in different home environments, with girls growing up in households that, by multiple markers, are more gender-regressive. This is potentially a mechanism for the inter-generational transmission of gendered norms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen als: , 1564 -
Literaturhinweis
Parental labor market penalties during two years of COVID-19 (2025)
Zitatform
De Paola, Maria & Salvatore Lattanzio (2025): Parental labor market penalties during two years of COVID-19. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 23, H. 1, S. 327-355. DOI:10.1007/s11150-024-09728-3
Abstract
"We use a matched employer-employee dataset covering the universe of employees in the Italian private sector to compare labor market outcomes of mothers and fathers during the pandemic. We find that mothers experienced a larger penalty in terms of reduced labor market earnings compared to fathers (−14.1 vs. −6.9 %) in 2020 and the first half of 2021. In contrast, starting from July 2021, we observe similar trends in mothers’ and fathers’ earnings. Evidence highlighting differences in penalties according to the sector of activity (essential vs. non-essential and easiness of access to work from home), the type of contract, the age of children, and the pre-pandemic mother-father pay gap suggests that both demand and supply factors have played a role in explaining the gendered impact of COVID-19." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
The Parenthood Penalty in Creative Occupations: How the Covid-19 Pandemic Made Existing Inequalities Worse (2025)
Zitatform
Feder, Tal, Rebecca Florisson, Dave O’Brien, Mark Taylor & Siobhan McAndrew (2025): The Parenthood Penalty in Creative Occupations: How the Covid-19 Pandemic Made Existing Inequalities Worse. In: Work and occupations, S. 1-35. DOI:10.1177/07308884241312897
Abstract
"Creative occupations are well-known for inequalities and exclusions. This article focuses on one such excluded group—creative workers who are the parents of young children—to examine the impact of the pandemic on their creative careers. We use the Household Quarterly Labour Force Survey, a large and nationally representative database of UK workers covering the period of 2015–2021. We run regression analyses to estimate the multidimensional impact of working in the creative field, gender, parenting and the pandemic period. The analysis demonstrates a clear parenthood penalty in creative occupations. For women with young children working in the ‘core’ creative occupations this penalty equates to working around nine fewer hours per week. This penalty is in addition to the general penalty for being a woman parent (25 fewer hours per week). The pandemic saw a further hit to ‘core’ creative parents’ working hours, and mothers suffered the heaviest reduction in working hours. Reduced working hours will exacerbate existing gendered inequalities in creative occupations. Based on the figures presented in the article, more must be done by policy interventions and employer activity to prevent even greater exclusions from creative work for mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Harmonizing French and German administrative data on maternal employment: A practical guide how to create comparable data sets from DADS-EDP and SIAB (2025)
Filser, Andreas ; Amend, Inga Marie; Wagner, Sander; Frodermann, Corinna ; Achard, Pascal ; Gaede, Inga;Zitatform
Filser, Andreas, Pascal Achard, Inga Marie Amend, Corinna Frodermann, Inga Gaede & Sander Wagner (2025): Harmonizing French and German administrative data on maternal employment. A practical guide how to create comparable data sets from DADS-EDP and SIAB. (SocArXiv papers), 18 S. DOI:10.31219/osf.io/rcsng
Abstract
"This paper provides a guide how to harmonize large-scale administrative datasets from France (DADS-EDP) and Germany (SIAB) for comparative social science research. France and Germany. While both datasets offer rich, longitudinal information on individual employment trajectories which can be augmented with firm-level information, they differ in structure, sample coverage, and variable coding. Harmonizing these datasets unlocks new potential for comparative research, particularly in examining the labor market trajectories of mothers in both countries. This paper outlines the necessary steps to harmonize these data sources and gives an overview on the set of harmonized variables. The harmonized data is of significant value for researchers, providing a foundation for comparative studies on labor market outcomes in France and Germany, especially in the context of welfare state differences and their importance within the EU and worldwide. The code for harmonization is provided for further adaptation to specific research questions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Weiterführende Informationen
-
Literaturhinweis
Perceived fairness and legitimacy of parental workplace discrimination (2025)
Zitatform
Gerich, Joachim & Martina Beham-Rabanser (2025): Perceived fairness and legitimacy of parental workplace discrimination. In: Community, work & family, S. 1-27. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2025.2453175
Abstract
"Parental discrimination has been shown to be related to several risks, including impaired health, increased job stress, and decreased job satisfaction, which calls for increased awareness of parental discrimination. This paper analyzes fairness and legitimacy judgments of unequal treatment based on parental status at work and the antecedents that influence these judgments. Stereotypes of symbolic vilification that suggest lower commitment due to caring responsibilities, and symbolic amplification, which refers to rational economic organizational needs, are expected to rationalize discrimination. Moreover, we expect specific values and ideologies to be related to judgments of fairness and legitimacy, mediated by resonance with symbolic vilification and amplification. Analyses are based on survey data from a sample of employees aged between 20 and 45 years (n = 376). Respondents' evaluations of parental discrimination were measured using two fictional cases. The results suggest that greater acceptance of vilifying and amplifying justifications is triggered by a stronger preference for the ideal worker norm and traditional gender role expectations. Women tend to view discrimination as more unfair and illegitimate than men, while men's judgments are more strongly driven by economic reasoning." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Does the child penalty strike twice? (2025)
Zitatform
Gørtz, Mette, Sarah Sander & Almudena Sevilla (2025): Does the child penalty strike twice? In: European Economic Review, Jg. 172. DOI:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2024.104942
Abstract
"This paper compares the labor market trajectories of grandparents before and after the arrival of their first grandchild. We find gender gaps in earnings of 4 and 10 percent five and ten years, respectively, after the first grandchild. These effects are driven by changes in women’s labor supply at both the intensive andextensive margin. We provide evidence from multiple data sources that grandmothers’ caregiving complements formal daycare, thereby offering essential flexibility for young parents. We document that grandchild penalties were larger in earlier periods characterized by low availability of daycare, shorter parental leave, and an earlier retirement age. Linking register data to geographical variations in daycare centers reveals that local daycare coverage is not associated with grandchild penalties. Detailed time use data show that grandmothers carry larger responsibilities for childcare than grandfathers. Recognizing the complementary nature of grandmaternal childcare is important for the design of policies attempting to reduce child penalties for both mothers and grandmothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Damned if You Do, Damned if You Don’t?: Experimental Evidence from Germany on Hiring Discrimination Against Mothers with Short Family Leave (2025)
Zitatform
Hipp, Lena (2025): Damned if You Do, Damned if You Don’t? Experimental Evidence from Germany on Hiring Discrimination Against Mothers with Short Family Leave. In: Work and occupations, S. 1-32. DOI:10.1177/07308884251360325
Abstract
"Can women overcome motherhood penalties by quickly returning to their jobs after childbirth? Do employers discriminate against fathers who take extended family leave? To answer these questions, I exploit some unique features of Germany's parental leave and job application system. My field experiment shows that mothers who only took the mandatory leave of two months are less likely to be invited to a job interview than mothers who stayed home for a year. There is, however, no difference between fathers who took short versus long periods of leave. The results of the supplementary laboratory experiment support my theoretical claim that women who “lean in” and violate the norm of being “a good mother” are judged more negatively than norm-violating men, who benefit from their culturally ascribed higher status in professional settings. My study hence underscores that women are required to enact traditional family roles to “fit in” but men are not. Fathers have more leeway in their behaviors and are evaluated according to a more flexible range of criteria than mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
The Parenthood Gap: Firms and Earnings Inequality After Kids (2025)
Zitatform
Jack, Rebecca, Daniel Tennenbaum & Brenden Timpe (2025): The Parenthood Gap: Firms and Earnings Inequality After Kids. (Opportunity & Inclusive Growth Institute working papers / Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis 110), Minneapolis, MN, 35 S. DOI:10.21034/iwp.110
Abstract
"We document the dynamics of career paths around parenthood, capturing worker advancement within firms and across firms of differing pay. Using a new linkage between administrative data on U.S. workers' fertility and labor-market histories, we show that the parental earnings gap is partly explained by mothers transitioning to lower-paying firms. Firm downgrading is driven by parents who take an extended absence from the labor force. Mothers who move to lower-paying firms see improved job amenities, but less generous fringe benefits. The firm's contribution to the parental earnings gap rises over time and reaches one-third by the child's 11th birthday." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Faith and the Child Penalty: Religious Affiliation and Gendered Earnings Losses After Childbirth (2025)
Zitatform
Lebedinski, Lara, Bernd Liedl, Vegard Skirbekk, Nadia Steiber & Rudolf Winter-Ebmer (2025): Faith and the Child Penalty: Religious Affiliation and Gendered Earnings Losses After Childbirth. (Working paper / Department of Economics, Johannes Kepler Universität of Linz 2025-07), Linz, 29 S.
Abstract
"The relationship between parenthood and gendered labor market outcomes has been extensively studied, with the ‘child penalty'—defined as the effect of having children on mothers' labor earnings relative to their partners'—documented in many countries. While prior research has explored institutional and normative drivers of this gap, the role of religious affiliation remains understudied, particularly at the population level. Religious beliefs shape both fertility decisions and labor market behavior and hence are potentially an important factor shaping heterogeneity in the size of the child penalty. Using comprehensive Austrian register data, this study provides novel evidence on the intersection of religious affiliation and the child penalty. Our results indicate that religious affiliation acts as a moderator of child penalties. Women with a religious affiliation, particularly those belonging to the Catholic majority, experience substantially larger earnings losses following childbirth compared to their secular peers. A decade after the birth of the first child, the woman’s share of the couple’s joint labor income declines by around 25 percentage points among couples where both partners are Catholic, compared to 18 percentage points among religiously unaffiliated couples. These findings underscore the importance of cultural factors in shaping the economic consequences of motherhood." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Gender-Specific Application Behaviour, Matching, and the Residual Gender Earnings Gap (2025)
Zitatform
Lochner, Benjamin & Christian Merkl (2025): Gender-Specific Application Behaviour, Matching, and the Residual Gender Earnings Gap. (CESifo working paper 11813), München, 35 S., Anhang.
Abstract
"This paper examines how gender-specific application behaviour, firms’ hiring practices, and flexibility demands relate to the gender earnings gap, using linked data from the German Job Vacancy Survey and administrative records. Women are less likely than men to apply to high-wage firms with high flexibility requirements, although their hiring chances are similar when they do. We show that compensating differentials for firms’ flexibility demands help explain the residual gender earnings gap. Among women, mothers experience the largest earnings penalties relative to men in jobs with high flexibility requirements." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Gender-Specific Application Behaviour, Matching, and the Residual Gender Earnings Gap (2025)
Zitatform
Lochner, Benjamin & Christian Merkl (2025): Gender-Specific Application Behaviour, Matching, and the Residual Gender Earnings Gap. In: The Economic Journal, S. 1-54. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueaf037
Abstract
"This paper examines how gender-specific application behavior, firms’ hiring practices, and flexibility demands relate to the gender earnings gap, using linked data from the German Job Vacancy Survey and administrative records. Women are less likely than men to apply to high-wage firms with high flexibility requirements, although their hiring chances are similar when they do. We show that compensating differentials for firms’ flexibility demands help explain the residual gender earnings gap. Among women, mothers experience the largest earnings penalties relative to men in jobs with high flexibility requirements." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
- frühere (möglicherweise abweichende) Version erschienen u.d.T. "Gender-Specific Application Behavior, Matching, and the Residual Gender Earnings Gap" als: LASER discussion papers, 139
- frühere (möglicherweise abweichende) Version erschienen u.d.T. "Gender-Specific Application Behavior, Matching, and the Residual Gender Earnings Gap" als: IAB-Discussion Paper, 22/2022
- frühere (möglicherweise abweichende) Version erschienen als: CESifo working paper, 11813
-
Literaturhinweis
Unpaid Working Time and Disproportionate Female Hazard: an Intersectionality Perspective (2025)
Zitatform
Manicardi, Caterina & Maria Enrica Virgillito (2025): Unpaid Working Time and Disproportionate Female Hazard: an Intersectionality Perspective. (LEM working paper series / Laboratory of Economics and Management 2025/01), Pisa, 36 S. DOI:10.57838/sssa/0v9f-0384
Abstract
"How has the distribution of unpaid working time between men and women evolved over the last twenty years? Does unpaid working time still disproportionately affect women, more than fifty years after the massive entry of the female labor force into formal employment? And, if so, which market and non-market factors drive this stratification and could possibly facilitate the transition out of an unequal intrahousehold division of labor? This paper leverages the most complete dataset collecting individual time diaries, the ATUS-CPS 2003-2022, to investigate the role of market variables such as real wages, household income, industry and occupation vis-a -vis non-market factors such as gender, race, household type and state of residence in explaining variations in unpaid time allocation. By exploiting both the cross-sectional and panel dimensions of the dataset, we provide novel evidence on individual time allocation and its gendered distribution, integrating an intersectional perspective that looks at the role of income classes and socio-material conditions in affecting the likelihood of escaping disproportionate exposure to unpaid work. Our results indicate that, despite clear class-based patterns, belonging to the upper income class is not enough for women to escape disproportionate burdens." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
-
Literaturhinweis
Child Penalty Estimation and Mothers Age at First Birth (2025)
Melentyeva, Valentina; Riedel, Lukas;Zitatform
Melentyeva, Valentina & Lukas Riedel (2025): Child Penalty Estimation and Mothers Age at First Birth. (RF Berlin - CReAM Discussion Paper Series 2025,19), Berlin, 45 S.
Abstract
"We show that the widespread approach to estimate the career costs of motherhood – socalled “child penalties” – is prone to produce biased results, as it pools first-time mothers of all ages without accounting for their differences in characteristics and outcomes. We propose a novel method building on the recent advances in the difference-in-differences literature to address this issue. Applied to German administrative data, our method yields 30 percent larger post-birth earnings losses than the conventional approach. We document meaningful effect heterogeneity by maternal age in both magnitude and interpretation, highlighting its key role in understanding the impact of motherhood." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))