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Liu, Jiming, Kehan Zhang & Kai Wu (2025): Workplace Anti‐Discrimination and Corporate Organization Capital: Evidence From State LGBTQ Protection Laws. In: BJIR, Jg. 63, H. 4, S. 587-609. DOI:10.1111/bjir.12882

Abstract

"This paper examines how prohibiting LGBTQ workplace discrimination through state-level Employment Non-Discrimination Acts (ENDAs) affects corporate investments in organization capital. Using difference-in-differences analysis of US public firms from 1976 to 2020, we find ENDAs adoption causes a significant and persistent increase in various measures of organization capital. The positive impact is amplified for states and firms exhibiting greater ex ante acceptance of diversity. We also document that ENDAs increase corporate cash holdings and operating flexibility, validating employee protection as an intermediary channel. Our study demonstrates that ENDAs meaningfully increased corporate organization capital over the past four decades, highlighting how equal opportunity laws can enhance knowledge-based assets and resilience by improving human capital retention, recruitment, and motivation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Lo, Iris Po Yee (2025): Queer Bonds at Work: A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Workplace Relations Among Sexual Minority Employees in Hong Kong. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 39, H. 6, S. 1351-1372. DOI:10.1177/09500170251343278

Abstract

"This article contributes to the organizational literature and queer scholarship by analyzing Chinese sexual minority employees’ experiences of building queer bonds at the nexus oftensions between continued heteronormativity at work and the emerging neoliberal politics of diversity and inclusion in Hong Kong. Through in-depth interviews with sexual minority employees, this study identified three types of queer bonds, defined as bonding based on shared experiences of marginalization that questions established social structures: ‘queer bonds at a distance’, ‘bottom-up queer bonds’ and ‘queer bonds in-between transgressing and maintaining boundaries’. The dialectical approach to mapping queer bonds foregrounds the tensions facing Chinese sexual minority employees – struggling between conforming to local cultural values and fighting for inclusion in workplaces. Sensitive to self/other entanglements and the tensions between resisting and accommodating, this dialectical approach broadens our understanding of what it means to be ‘queer’ and reveals diverse forms of bonding." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Moberg, Ylva & Maaike van der Vleuten (2025): Splitting the penalty by taking turns? Same‐sex mothers' earnings losses in Norway. In: Journal of Marriage and Family, Jg. 87, H. 4, S. 1524-1548. DOI:10.1111/jomf.13081

Abstract

"Objective: This study describes the childbearing trajectories and earnings of mothers in female same-sex couples (FSSC) in Norway and, through comparisons with mothers in different-sex couples (DSC), explores three factors behind mothers' earnings losses. Background: Mothers in FSSC experience smaller earnings penalties following parenthood than mothers in DSC. We investigate three potential reasons for this: the number of pregnancies/births the mother goes through, number of children in the family, and the partner's sex. Method: The study utilized Norwegian register data, 1999–2021, including 1050 women in FSSC and 168,649 in DSC. An event study was used to estimate labor earnings changes after a first and second child, separately for mothers in DSC and FSSC, and for partners in FSSC who gave birth once, twice, or never, isolating the impact of each factor. Results: Childbirth/pregnancy was the most important factor. Birth mothers experienced large earnings losses after each pregnancy, with no differences between FSSC and DSC. Likely due to strict regulations, high costs, and low availability of fertility treatments, FSSC had fewer children and (only) 50% switched birth parent for a second child. Conclusion: (Birth) mothers' larger earnings losses stem primarily from time away from the labor market in connection with each pregnancy/birth. Mothers in FSSC on average go through fewer pregnancies, possibly explaining their overall smaller earnings penalties in the first 5 years of parenthood." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Paine, Emily Allen, Melissa V. Abad, Renato Barucco, Ya-Wen Yama Chang, Theresa V. Navalta, Thomas A. Vance, Anke A. Ehrhardt & Walter O. Bockting (2025): “Too Much Trouble”: Transgender and Nonbinary People's Experiences of Stigmatization and Stigma Avoidance in the Workplace. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 52, H. 2, S. 204-244. DOI:10.1177/07308884241268705

Abstract

"Transgender and nonbinary (TNB) people in the U.S. navigate significant employment and economic inequities. Gaps in knowledge about their workplace experiences limit our broader understanding of how social inequality is interactionally constructed through employment contexts. We conducted and analyzed interviews with 26 TNB young adults. Routine hiring processes and structural constraints made participants vulnerable to interactional stigmatization and subsequent discrimination, with deleterious consequences for employment as well as mental health. Participants deployed a variety of strategies to avoid or resist anticipated stigma, including exiting the workforce or changing careers. One's ability to avoid stigmatization at work was partially shaped by structural and managerial support, organizational form, and one's gender and gender conformity. Beyond contributing to economic inequality by limiting job and career options, our findings suggest that these social processes comprise minority stressors that diminish the well-being of TNB participants and exacerbate their economic marginalization. In contributing empirical insight into the experiences of TNB people, we demonstrate the salience of stigmatization and stigma avoidance strategies for social closure within organizations and thereby advance sociological understanding of the relational generation of inequality at work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Discrimination remains a persistent challenge in the European Union, despite efforts to enhance anti‑discrimination laws and inclusion policies. In the absence of comparable official data sources, this report draws on survey data and the OECD Anti‑Discrimination Questionnaire to analyze discrimination against people from racialized communities, LGBTI people, persons with disability and religious minorities in OECD EU countries. Self‑reported discrimination rates are rising in many OECD EU countries and discrimination, particularly when it occurs frequently, is associated with severe effects on people’s lives – constraining income‑earning opportunities, exacerbating housing and financial stress, increasing concerns about exposure to violence, and contributing to loneliness and mental ill-health. These consequences come at a considerable personal cost to the individuals directly affected and to society as a whole. While OECD EU countries have made progress in prohibiting discrimination and promoting inclusion, legal and policy gaps persist for some at‑risk groups, such as LGBTI people and religious minorities. Strengthening anti‑discrimination protections, harmonizing EU legislation across all protected grounds, and improving data collection could help foster greater inclusion and equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Alonso-Villar, Olga & Coral del Río (2024): Where Do Families Headed by Same-Sex Couples Fall Within the U.S. Income Distribution? (Working paper / Universidade de Vigo, Departamento de Economía Aplicada 2401), Vigo, 39 S.

Abstract

"By building an entire counterfactual income distribution in which married/cohabiting male and female same-sex couple families and married/cohabiting different-sex couple families have the same composition in terms of education, race, age, presence of children, and geographical variables, we determine the differential effect of these factors to explain the position of each family type within the income distribution. We also explore the income sources from which intergroup income differences arise. This approach enables us to integrate the position of individuals in the labor market and their wellbeing in terms of family income (once the effects of the above variables are accounted for). Our analysis suggests that the sexual orientation wage disadvantage that men in same-sex couples experience coexists with a family income advantage (in both the actual and the counterfactual economy), which arises from the higher probability of two-earner couples among male same-sex couples and their gender wage advantage. However, these two features are not enough to protect male couples in the low tail of the income distribution, who have lower conditional earnings than married different-sex couple families do. As for female same-sex couple families, their position in the counterfactual income distribution seems to be strongly limited by the gender wage gap these women experience, which is not outweighed by the sexual orientation wage advantage they have and the higher probability of two-earner couples among these families." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Anderson, Karoline Anita (2024): Cisnormative symbolic colonization and transgender and gender nonconforming individuals in the workplace. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 31, H. 1, S. 1-15. DOI:10.1111/gwao.13048

Abstract

"Cisnormativity assumes individual traits and social roles that correspond to one's gender assigned at birth. Cisnormativity in workplace culture sustains the discrimination of transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) individuals. Research in the workplace has yet to evaluate strategies that TGNC employees use to attain personal or social goals. In the present study, the term cisnormative symbolic colonization (CSC) incorporates Habermas' theory of communicative action with symbolic interactionism to demonstrate the permeation of cisnormative dominance in workplace culture through symbolic social practices. Interviews with 15 transgender women and gender nonconforming individuals illustrated four strategies used to mitigate CSC in the workplace: bargaining, validating, symbolic ‐aligning, and value‐endorsing. The findings demonstrated the dominant impact of CSC in workplace culture and revealed the employment of trans‐symbolism to integrate trans‐inclusive values in the workplace." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Brenøe, Anne Ardila, Zeynep Eyibak, Lea Heursen, Eva Ranehill & Roberto A. Weber (2024): Gender Identity and Economic Decision Making. (Working papers / Department of Economics, Lund University 2024,06), Lund, 77 S., Anhang.

Abstract

"Economic research on gender gaps in preferences and economic outcomes has focused on variation with respect to sex —a binary classification as either a “man” or “woman.” We validate a novel and simple measure of self-reported continuous gender identity (CGI) and explore whether gender identity correlates with variation in economic decisions and outcomes beyond the relationship with binary sex. We use four datasets (N=8,073) measuring various dimensions of economic preferences and educational and labor market outcomes for which prior research has documented gaps between men and women. Our analysis rejects the null hypothesis that CGI has no relationship with behaviors and preferences beyond the relationship with binary sex, particularly for men, and suggests that incorporating self-reported measures of gender identity may have value for understanding gender gaps and for targeting policy. However, when considering specific domains, the relationships vary in statistical significance and are often small." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Campbell, Travis, Lee Badgett, Everest Dalton-Quartz & Chandler Campbell (2024): Beyond the Gender Binary: Transgender Labor Force Status in the United States 2014–17. In: Feminist economics, Jg. 30, H. 3, S. 1-33. DOI:10.1080/13545701.2024.2399507

Abstract

"Following the recent acknowledgment of and debates around transgender people in the United States, there has emerged a small but growing literature on the economic implications of being transgender. However, most economic research on gender fails to account for major components of gender by only including sex and gender identity, which may entail drastic mischaracterizations of transgender labor market outcomes. This article accounts for how people express their gender and how one’s voice is perceived by others using the Behavioral Risk Factors Surveillance Systems 2014–7, which finds compelling evidence of transgender women facing labor market penalties for having a feminine gender expression and voice perceived as feminine, whereas transgender men are rewarded for having a masculine gender expression and voice perceived as masculine." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Carpenter, Christopher S., Donn. L. Feir, Krishna Pendakur & Casey Warman (2024): Nonbinary Gender Identities and Earnings: Evidence from a National Census. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17377), Bonn, 39 S.

Abstract

"The social and legal recognition of nonbinary people—those who do not exclusively identify with traditionally male or female genders—is growing. Yet, we know little about their economic realities. We offer the first nationally representative evidence on the earnings of nonbinary people using restricted-access 2021 Canadian Census data linked to tax records. We find that, although nonbinary individuals tend to be more educated than their peers, they have significantly lower earnings, especially at the bottom of the income distribution, even after adjusting for various demographic and socioeconomic factors." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Carpenter, Christopher S., Lucas Goodman & Maxine J. Lee (2024): Transgender Earnings Gaps in the United States: Evidence from Administrative Data. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 32691), Cambridge, Mass, 88 S.

Abstract

"We provide the first evidence on transgender earnings in the US using administrative data on over 55,000 individuals who changed their gender marker with the Social Security Administration and had gender-congruent first name changes on tax records. We validate and describe this sample which exhibits positive selection likely associated with the ability to legally affirm gender. To address selection we estimate transgender earnings gaps using timing variation within-person and variation across siblings and coworkers. All three approaches return evidence of robust transgender earnings penalties of 6-13 log points driven by extensive and intensive margin differences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Carrasco, Raquel & Ana Nuevo-Chiquero (2024): Women's Sexual Orientation and Occupational Tasks: Partners, Prejudice, and Motherhood. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17318), Bonn, 28 S.

Abstract

"This paper examines differences in occupational task content among women based on their sexual orientation. Using data from the American Community Survey, we find that women in same-sex couples are more likely to be employed in occupations characterized by more abstract and manual tasks, and fewer routine components. These occupations are traditionally associated with greater flexibility, accommodating career interruptions, and minimizing skill depreciation. These differences are not explained by individual or partner characteristics or by prejudice at the occupational level. Furthermore, our findings hold even after controlling for self-selection into the labor force. Heterogeneous effects by age and parental status suggest that these choices reflect long-term strategies rather than short-term responses to childbearing. This points to a complex relationship between occupational choice and fertility, influenced by the probability of labour force exit and re-entry." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ciprikis, Klavs, Damien Cassells & Jenny Berrill (2024): Transgender self-employment outcomes: evidence from the USA. In: Small business economics, Jg. 63, H. 3, S. 871-896. DOI:10.1007/s11187-023-00845-4

Abstract

"Transgender persons are subject to strong stigma in society and the labor market. Transgender persons may therefore view self-employment as an opportunity to escape labor market inequalities. However, the rate of transgender self-employment, when compared to equivalent cisgender persons, has not been explored in previous research. Therefore, this article uses a large nationally representative dataset from the USA to examine differences in self-employment and incomes between transgender and cisgender persons. The main research technique uses Kitagawa-Oaxaca-Blinder style decomposition to explain differences in mean self-employment rates and incomes between cisgender men and other gender groups. The findings show that transgender persons are less likely than cisgender men, but more likely than cisgender women, to be self-employed. Transgender people are also likely to earn less than cisgender persons, but in terms of income from self-employment only, transgender people are no better or worse than self-employed cisgender men. There is some evidence that self-employed transgender men are more likely to be in the highest income category than self-employed cisgender men. Some of the self-employment and income gaps could not be explained by sociodemographic characteristics and, therefore, may be due to differences in unobserved characteristics or potential discrimination. The findings in this article provide important and previously unavailable evidence on differences in self-employment outcomes between transgender and cisgender persons." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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De Vries, Lisa & Stephanie Steinmetz (2024): Sexual Orientation, Workplace Authority and Occupational Segregation: Evidence from Germany. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 38, H. 3, S. 852-870. DOI:10.1177/09500170231158513

Abstract

"An extensive body of research has documented the relationship between sexual orientation and income, but only a few studies have examined the effects of sexual orientation on workplace authority. This article investigates the probability of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) people having (high-level) workplace authority and the effects of occupational gender segregation. It analyses four waves of data from the German Socio-Economic Panel study (N=37,288 heterosexual and N=739 LGB observations). The results show that gay and bisexual men do not differ from heterosexual men in their probability of having workplace authority, but they have a lower probability of attaining high-level authority. Lesbian and bisexual women have a higher probability than heterosexual women of having workplace authority, but no advantages in attaining high-level authority. These insights into occupational segregation suggest that gay and bisexual men experience similar levels of disadvantages across occupations, whereas lesbian and bisexual women have an advantage in female-dominated occupations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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De Vries, Lisa (2024): Job Attribute Preferences of Sexual Minority People: The Role of Past Discrimination and Safe Havens. In: Social Sciences, Jg. 13, H. 3. DOI:10.3390/socsci13030124

Abstract

"Building on research on discrimination, occupational segregation, and labor market inequalities that are rooted in sexual orientation, this study examines how previous negative experiences of discrimination and positive experiences of “safe havens”—workplaces that protect employees from discrimination—are associated with job attribute preferences of sexual minority people. Based on data from a German online convenience sample (N = 1197 sexual minority respondents), this study focuses on five job attribute preferences: high income, good promotion prospects, opportunities for further training, interesting work, and LGB-friendly work climate. The results suggest the high importance of an LGB-friendly work climate for sexual minority people. Furthermore, the results show that discriminatory experiences are positively associated with the importance of an LGB-friendly work climate for sexual minority people in an early career stage. However, safe havens are positively associated with the importance of an LGB-friendly work climate for sexual minority people. Finally, results suggest little evidence for an association between discrimination, safe havens, and general job attribute preferences. Differences between career stages highlight the importance of this variable in further research on the career trajectories of sexual minority people." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Delhommer, Scott & Domonkos F. Vamossy (2024): Effect of State and Local Sexual Orientation Anti-Discrimination Laws on Labor Market Differentials. (arXiv papers 2404.03794), 49 S.

Abstract

"This paper presents the first quasi-experimental research examining the effect of both local and state anti-discrimination laws on sexual orientation on the labor supply and wages of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) workers. To do so, we use the American Community Survey data on household composition to infer sexual orientation and combine this with a unique panel dataset on local anti-discrimination laws. Using variation in law implementation across localities over time and between same-sex and different-sex couples, we find that anti-discrimination laws significantly reduce gaps in labor force participation rate, employment, and the wage gap for gay men relative to straight men. These laws also significantly reduce the labor force participation rate, employment, and wage premium for lesbian women relative to straight women. One explanation for the reduced labor supply and wage premium is that lesbian couples begin to have more children in response to the laws. Finally, we present evidence that state anti-discrimination laws significantly and persistently increased support for same-sex marriage. This research shows that anti-discrimination laws can be an effective policy tool for reducing labor market inequalities across sexual orientation and improving sentiment toward LGB Americans." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Denier, Nicole, Chih-lan Winnie Yang, Xavier St-Denis & Sean Waite (2024): Earnings trajectories of individuals in same-sex and different-sex couples: Evidence from administrative data. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 92. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2024.100950

Abstract

"We unite two interrelated bodies of work – a growing literature on sexual orientation earnings gaps and a rich tradition of research on intragenerational career trajectories – to examine how labor markets and life courses interact to produce gender and sexual orientation inequalities over time. We use the 1982–2019 Canadian Longitudinal Administrative Databank, a unique longitudinal database constructed from tax records, to answer core questions about the mechanisms that underlie sexual orientation earnings inequality. Growth curve models reveal how sexual orientation earnings gaps evolve over time spent in the workforce, and how they relate to differences in demographic and work characteristics for those in same- and different-sex couples at various points in the life course. We find that sexual orientation earnings gaps converge and diverge at unique career stages for men and women, and at each stage relate to unique mechanisms, especially work characteristics and family status. We find little significant variation in average earnings trajectories by sexual orientation across cohorts who were subject to differing legal and social environments surrounding sexual orientation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))

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Drydakis, Nick (2024): Trans people, well-being, and labor market outcomes. (IZA world of labor 386), Bonn, 10 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.386.v2

Abstract

"Acceptance of one’s gender identity and congruence between one’s gender identity and outward appearance are associated with less adverse mental health symptoms, and greater life and job satisfaction. However, trans people are subject to human rights violations, hate crimes, and experience higher unemployment and poverty than the general population. Trans people often feel that they are citizens who are not allowed to be themselves and practice their authentic identity. Many biased treatments of trans people could be attenuated if legal protections and inclusive workplace practices were in place." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fasoli, Fabio, David M. Frost & Harley Serdet (2024): How voice transition and gender identity disclosure shape perceptions of trans men in the hiring process. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 31, H. 1, S. 36-58. DOI:10.1111/gwao.13053

Abstract

"Trans men often face discrimination in the hiring process. However, it remains unclear whether the disclosure of gender identity and perceived masculinity during transition play a role in first impressions and perceived job suitability of trans male applicants. Across two studies (N  = 332), we examined how cisgender heterosexual participants perceived a transgender male candidate in terms of his masculinity and whether they judged him suitable for a stereotypically masculine job. Such judgments were first based on the candidate's voice at different stages of gender transition and, secondly, after disclosure of gender identity in the job application form. In Study 1, participants judged a trans man at the beginning of the voice transition (3 months on testosterone) or a trans man in advanced transitioning (1 year on testosterone). Study 2 involved the judgments of the same trans men at different times in the voice transition (1 week—beginning, 6 months—intermediate, and 1 year—advanced). Masculinity judgments were influenced by voice transitioning, but judgments were adjusted after his gender identity was disclosed. Disclosure created an advantage in perception of the trans man candidate as more suitable for the role, especially when he was at the beginning of the voice transition when his voice was not perceived as masculine. Findings are discussed in relation to trans men's employability and identity disclosure." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Gromadzki, Jan & Honorata Bogusz (2024): Labor Market Outcomes of Same-Sex Couples in Countries with Legalized Same-Sex Marriage. (Department of Economics working paper / Vienna University of Economics and Business 360), Wien, 63 S.

Abstract

"We study the labor market outcomes of same-sex couples using data from large representative household surveys. We use high-quality data representing more than two-thirds of the world's population with access to same-sex marriage on three continents. Same-sex couples are less likely to be inactive and work more hours than different-sex couples, largely due to the differences in the probability of having a child. Men in same-sex couples are up to 60 percent more likely to be unemployed than men in different-sex couples. These unemployment gaps cannot be explained by occupational sorting or other observable characteristics." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))