Zitatform

Cowling, Marc & Ondřej Dvouletý (2024): When a non-gendered start-up policy delivers for female entrepreneurs: Evidence from the UK start-up loan scheme. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 20, H. 2, S. 1089-1109. DOI:10.1007/s11365-023-00934-6

Abstract

"This research contributes to the state of knowledge on gender aspects of entrepreneurship and SME-promoting policies from the perspective of the United Kingdom. In this paper, we draw upon the largest public policy intervention aimed explicitly at fostering new business start-ups, the Start-Up Loan (SUL) scheme. Since its inception in 2012 until the present day, question whether female start-up entrepreneurs were over-represented in terms of scheme participation, which would be the case if the barriers they face when seeking to start a new business are greater than their male peers. First, the study exploits available secondary data from the Eurostat and Global Entrepreneurship Monitor to determine the participation of females in entrepreneurship during the last decades. Second, we exploit the administrative data of the participants of the SUL scheme between 2012 and 2022 (N = 98,026). Methodologically, the study relies on summary statistical tools and estimation of the Cox proportional hazard models, predicting the loan default rates of the supported individuals across genders. With an average female representation of 40% over the last decade on the SUL scheme, which is significantly higher than in the UK business population, a very positive and unintended consequence of the scheme is that tens of thousands of female entrepreneurs were given the support that, in its absence, may have prevented or discouraged them from starting their new business. Furthermore, females participating in the SUL scheme have lower hazard rates than males." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Gomez, Claudia, B. Yasanthi Perera & Lucas M. Engelhardt (2024): The distinct nature of U.S. based female immigrant entrepreneurs. In: Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, Jg. 36, H. 3-4, S. 312-340. DOI:10.1080/08985626.2023.2264803

Abstract

"Despite contributing to host country economies, there is limited examination of self-employed female immigrants in the literature. While human, social, and financial capital are important for entrepreneurship in general, given immigrant women's intersectional identities, the potential exists for these factors to affect them differently. This study uses US data obtained from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) to empirically test the relationship of human, social, and financial capital on female immigrants self-employment and compares these relationships with US-born women and male immigrants. While the results are mixed, overall, the findings suggest that female immigrants odds of being self-employed, in relation to their levels of human, social, and financial capital, are influenced to a greater extent by their immigrant identity than their gender identity. Implications for future research and public policy are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Görg, Holger & Ina C. Jäkel (2024): Beyond Borders: Do Gender Norms and Institutions Affect Female Businesses? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17123), Bonn, 52 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, we investigate whether gender norms and institutions act as a constraint to the performance of female businesses. We exploit novel and unique micro data on start-ups in Denmark, which we combine with information on individual-level characteristics of the entrepreneur as main decision maker of the firm. We overcome the challenge of disentangling norms and institutional biases against women from other constraints and hurdles that female businesses might face by exploiting detailed trade data. In this trade context, we study the relative performance of firms across markets with varying institutions, while controlling for other factors that affect female businesses uniformly across all markets. We provide evidence that gender inequality and institutional biases against women in trade partner countries play an important role in explaining gender differences in export and import behaviour. We also perform an event study of a concrete policy change in a destination market – the introduction of quotas for the share of females on the boards of directors in Norway – and how it has affected the gender gap in trade participation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Hirschfeld, Alexander, Tobias Kollmann, Jannis Gilde, Vanusch Walk & Mia Ansorge (2024): Deutscher Startup Monitor 2024. Den Blick nach vorne. Berlin, 62 S.

Abstract

"Der Startup-Jobmotor stottert, aber Blick nach vorne ist positiv: Nach dem stetigen Aufwärtstrend der letzten Jahre sinkt die durchschnittliche Mitarbeitendenzahl in diesem Jahr von 18,9 auf 16,7 – gleichzeitig gehen aber 79,8 % von einer Verbesserung der Geschäftslage bis Ende 2025 aus. Profitabilität und B2B stehen im Mittelpunkt: Im Kontext anhaltender Herausforderungen rückt bei Startups Profitabilität (78,8 %) gegenüber schnellem Wachstum (54,0 %) in den strategischen Fokus – außerdem steigt der Anteil am Umsatz mit Geschäftskunden auf 74,7 % (2023: 70,4 %). Nachhaltigkeit bleibt Fokus: Auch im Kontext der wirtschaftlichen Herausforderungen rücken deutsche Startups nicht von ihrem klaren Bekenntnis zur ökologischen Nachhaltigkeit ab und die Selbstzuordnung zur Green Economy steigt leicht von 46,7 % 2023 auf 48,1 %. Der Gründerinnenanteil sinkt: Nach dem langsamen, aber kontinuierlichen Anstieg in den letzten Jahren geht der Anteil der Frauen unter deutschen Startup-Gründer*innen in diesem Jahr von 20,7 % auf 18,8 % zurück. Hochschulen schaffen unternehmerische Innovation: Der Anteil an Startups, die von einer Hochschule unterstützt wurden, steigt von 49,2 % auf 55,1 %. Während vor allem die gute Vernetzung (62,4 %) hervorgehoben wird, bewerten nur 39,5 % die Vorbereitung auf den Startup-Alltag positiv. DeepTech spielt signifikante Rolle: 11,4 % der deutschen Startups lassen sich der Kategorie DeepTech zuordnen. Sie zeichnen sich dadurch aus, dass sie neuste wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse und Technologien auf den Markt bringen und ihre Produkte längere Entwicklungszeiten haben. Bei Kooperationen hakt es weiter: Nur 37,5 % bewerten die Möglichkeiten zur Zusammenarbeit mit der etablierten Wirtschaft als gut – nochmal weniger als im Vorjahr (40,5 %). So ist der Anteil an Startups mit Unternehmenskooperationen seit dem Höchststand in 2020 kontinuierlich zurückgegangen, hat sich 2024 aber zumindest stabilisiert. Startups stehen für Internationalität: Der Anteil ausländischer Mitarbeitender im deutschen Startup-Ökosystem liegt bei 30,8 % und in 34,9 % der Startups gilt die Arbeitssprache Englisch – in Berlin liegen diese Werte sogar bei 42,3 % und 55,8 %. Wunsch zu Gründen entsteht meist früh: Bei sechs von zehn Gründer*innen kam die Idee, ein eigenes Unternehmen aufzubauen, bereits vor dem Karrierestart auf – entweder erstmalig in der Jugend (29,6 %) oder im Rahmen des Studiums bzw. der Ausbildung (29,9 %). Das sind die Erwartungen an die Politik: Startups erwarten vom Bund vor allem Fortschritte bei der Digitalisierung der Verwaltung (58,5 %) und für größere Scaleups steht daneben die Flexibilisierung des Arbeitsmarkts (59,5 %) im Fokus." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Hunt, Jennifer & Carolyn Moehling (2024): Do Female–Owned Employment Agencies Mitigate Discrimination and Expand Opportunity for Women? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16941), Bonn, 35 S., Appendix.

Abstract

"We create a dataset of 14,000 hand–coded help –wanted advertisements placed by employment agencies in three U.S. newspapers in 1950 and 1960, a time when help–wanted advertisements were divided into male and female sections, and collect information on agency ownership. We find that female–owned agencies specialized in vacancies for women, thereby expanding the access of female jobseekers to agency services, including for positions in majority–male occupations. Female–owned agencies advertised more skilled occupations to women than did male–owned agencies, leading to a 5.5% higher wage for women. On the other hand, female–owned agencies had a greater propensity to match male jobseekers to clerical jobs, contributing to 21% lower male wages than for male–owned agencies. The results are consistent with female proprietors having had a comparative advantage in female jobseekers and clerical occupations or with client firms having trusted female proprietors only with vacancies for women and homogeneous, lower–skill occupations. However, in choosing to establish an agency and to specialize in female jobseekers, female proprietors may have sought to mitigate employer discrimination against female jobseekers; their higher propensity to advertise majority–male occupations among professional, technical and managerial advertisements for women may also reflect discrimination mitigation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kritikos, Alexander S., Mika Maliranta, Veera Nippala & Satu Nurmi (2024): Does gender of firm ownership matter? Female entrepreneurs and the gender pay gap. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 1422), Essen, 39 S.

Abstract

"We examine how the gender of business-owners is related to the wages paid to female relative to male employees working in their firms. Using Finnish register data and employing firm fixed effects, we find that the gender pay gap is - starting from a gender pay gap of 11 to 12 percent - two to three percentage-points lower for hourly wages in female-owned firms than in male-owned firms. Results are robust to how the wage is measured, as well as to various further robustness checks. More importantly, we find substantial differences between industries. While, for instance, in the manufacturing sector, the gender of the owner plays no role for the gender pay gap, in several service sector industries, like ICT or business services, no or a negligible gender pay gap can be found, but only when firms are led by female business owners. Businesses in male ownership maintain a gender pay gap of around 10 percent also in the latter industries. With increasing firm size, the influence of the gender of the owner, however, fades. In large firms, it seems that others - firm managers - determine wages and no differences in the pay gap are observed between male- and female-owned firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Love, Inessa, Boris Nikolaev & Chandra Dhakal (2024): The well-being of women entrepreneurs: the role of gender inequality and gender roles. In: Small business economics, Jg. 62, H. 1, S. 325-352. DOI:10.1007/s11187-023-00769-z

Abstract

"The current study presents new evidence on the well-being of women entrepreneurs using data from the World Values Survey for 80 countries. Results indicate that in low- and middle-income countries, female entrepreneurs have lower well-being than male entrepreneurs, while in high-income countries, they have higher well-being. Several macro and micro-level mechanisms– institutional context, gender roles, and individual characteristics–that potentially moderate this relationship are explored. The gender gap in well-being is larger in countries with higher gender inequality, lower level of financial development, and stricter adherence to sexist gender roles. Additionally, women entrepreneurs with lower education, more children, and risk-averse preferences are more likely to report lower well-being. The results suggest several policy mechanisms that can be used to enhance the well-being of women entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Singer, Kirsten & Nicole Fleischer (2024): Die Arbeitsmarktsituation von Frauen und Männern 2023. (Berichte: Blickpunkt Arbeitsmarkt / Bundesagentur für Arbeit), Nürnberg, 29 S.

Abstract

"Die Erwerbsneigung und Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen und Männern sind in Deutschland in den letzten 10 Jahren deutlich gestiegen. Nur in wenigen Ländern Europas ist die Erwerbsbeteiligung insgesamt und insbesondere von Frauen so hoch wie in Deutschland. Frauen und Männer sind unterschiedlich in den verschiedenen Formen der Erwerbstätigkeit vertreten: Rund zwei Drittel der Selbständigen sind Männer. Die sozialversicherungspflichtig Beschäftigten sind zu über der Hälfte männlich. Bei den Beamten sind Frauen und Männer je zur Hälfte vertreten und Minijobs sind nach wie vor eine Frauendomäne." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Slavici, Melanie & Veronika Kneip (2024): Rollenerwartungen und wenn Gründerinnen sie nicht erfüllen – Szenarien zur Startup-Finanzierung und -Berichterstattung. In: Zeitschrift für Diversitätsforschung und -management, Jg. 9, H. 2-2024, S. 143-156. DOI:10.3224/zdfm.v9i2.03

Abstract

"Unser Beitrag fragt nach unterschiedlichen Rollenerwartungen, die innerhalb des StartupÖkosystems an Gründerinnen und Gründer gestellt werden, und verknüpft dafür die Role Congruity Theory (RCT) mit der Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT). Über 12 leitfadengestützte Interviews mit Investor*innen und Medienschaffenden erheben wir geschlechtsspezifische Rollenerwartungen, prüfen dann, ob diese von den Gründerinnen erfüllt werden und schließlich, inwieweit rollen(in)kongruentes Verhalten belohnt oder sanktioniert wird. Entlang von vier Szenarien zeigen wir, dass Gründerinnen keinesfalls „nur“ die Wahl zwischen Belohnung für Rollenkongruenz oder Sanktion für Rolleninkongruenz haben." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Ubfal, Diego (2024): What Works in Supporting Women-Led Businesses? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16950), Bonn, 34 S.

Abstract

"Innovative women entrepreneurs can be agents of change and offer novel solutions to global challenges. However, they face multiple barriers to growing their businesses. This paper reviews the literature on strategies to support women entrepreneurs in improving their business outcomes. It focuses on interventions designed to address four areas of constraints that influence their decisions and can impact their business performance: gaps in human capital, access to finance, access to technology and markets, and contextual factors such as legal and regulatory constraints, social norms, access to care, and gender-based violence. The review concludes that evidence of modest average treatment effects and heterogeneity in treatment effects across various interventions suggest the need for more precise targeting. The multiple constraints faced by women entrepreneurs necessitates testing different packages of interventions. Moreover, the successful implementation and adoption of proposed solutions require consideration of the contextual constraints that differentially affect women-led businesses. While the review highlights several interventions that show promise in supporting women entrepreneurs, significant gaps remain in the evidence concerning the most effective strategies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Zelekha, Yaron (2024): The effect of spouses on the entrepreneurial gender gap. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 20, H. 4, S. 2481-2514. DOI:10.1007/s11365-024-01008-x

Abstract

"In a novel contribution to the entrepreneurial, the Gender and Development (GAD) and the relational capital (RC) literatures, this study examines the possible role of spouses on the entrepreneurial gender gap through the family embeddedness model, which sees the family members as embedded in their social relationships and describes family systems through three interrelated characteristics (family transitions, family resources and family norms including attitudes, and values). Using a unique representative matched sample of 321 married couples, the results supports both the preselection and especially the socialization hypotheses by showing that married people have a significant association with their partners regarding their entrepreneurial tendency which also increases as marriage duration extends. Furthermore, while such similarity is associated with an increased probability for women to become an entrepreneur, it is also associated with men’s decreased probability to become an entrepreneur. Finally, clear evidence was found that family income had a significant positive association with men’s entrepreneurial tendency as well as with their probability to become entrepreneurs. However, it did not have any signifcant association with a woman’s entrepreneurial tendency nor with their probability to become entrepreneurs. The results shed light on important possible drivers for the entrepreneurial gender gap that works inside the family premises." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Ahn, Kunwon & John V. Winters (2023): Does education enhance entrepreneurship? In: Small business economics, Jg. 61, H. 2, S. 717-743. DOI:10.1007/s11187-022-00701-x

Abstract

"Formal education is correlated with entrepreneurial activity and success, but correlation does not indicate causation. Education and entrepreneurship are both influenced by other related factors. The current study estimates the causal effects of formal education on entrepreneurship outcomes by instrumenting for an individual's years of schooling using cohort mean years of maternal schooling observed decades prior. We differentiate self-employment by industry employment growth and firm incorporation status. Policymakers are especially interested in entrepreneurship with the potential to create substantial employment growth. We find that an additional year of schooling increases self-employment in high-growth industries by 1.12 percentage points for women and by 0.88 percentage points for men. Education reduces the probability of male self-employment in shrinking industries. Education also increases incorporated self-employment for women and men and reduces unincorporated self-employment among men but not women. The overall probability of self-employment increases with education for women but is unaffected by education for men. The results suggest that formal education enhances entrepreneurship." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Charpin, Agnès, Ariane Szafarz & Ilan Tojerow (2023): Female corporate owners and female CEOs. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 232. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111285

Abstract

"“Old boys’ club” ownership structures can hamper the empowerment of female talent. We use African data to show that the CEOs of firms with female shareholders are more likely to be women, regardless of the size of female shareholdings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 Elsevier) ((en))

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Köpke, Ulrike & Eva Schmitt-Rodermund (2023): Aus welchen Gründen wagen Hochschulabsolventinnen seltener den Schritt in die Selbstständigkeit als Hochschulabsolventen? Eine Analyse auf Basis des DZHW-Absolventenpanels. In: Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Jg. 75, H. 3, S. 289-318. DOI:10.1007/s11577-023-00909-z

Abstract

"Warum wagen Frauen seltener den Schritt in die Selbstständigkeit als Männer? Die vorliegende Untersuchung fokussiert auf die Umsetzung einer Selbstständigkeit durch Hochschulabsolventinnen und -absolventen und untersucht, welche Faktoren mit der Geschlechterlücke einhergehen. Die Auswahl der Prädiktoren basiert auf dem theoretischen Modell von Eccles et al. (1983), welches in der Tradition eines „Erwartung × Wert-Modells“ unter Einbeziehung sozialer, psychologischer, demografischer und ökonomischer Einflüsse die berufliche Wahlentscheidung beleuchtet. Sowohl über die Zeit hinweg stabile Merkmale, wie die Selbstständigkeit der Eltern, der fachspezifische Studienabschluss und das Big Five-Persönlichkeitsprofil, als auch dynamische und durch Lebensumstände beeinflusste Faktoren, wie Arbeits- und Lebensziele, wurden untersucht. Die Datengrundlage bildete die zweite Welle des DZHW (Deutsches Zentrum für Hochschul- und Wissenschaftsforschung) Absolventenpanel 2009 (N = 2465). Um den Einfluss der Prädiktoren auf die Geschlechterdifferenzen zu analysieren, wurden logistische Regressionsmodelle berechnet, die zum einen den Einfluss insgesamt und zum anderen den geschlechterseparierten Einfluss auf die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Umsetzung einer Selbstständigkeit untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse belegen, dass Frauen nach wie vor seltener beruflich selbstständig sind als Männer. Geschlechtsspezifische Auswertungen zeigen weiterhin, dass bei Absolventinnen vor allem Arbeits- und Lebensziele und bei Männern die Vorbildrolle der Eltern dazu führt, unternehmerisch tätig zu sein. Absolventinnen, denen ein sicherer Arbeitsplatz eher unwichtig und eine Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie weder besonders wichtig noch besonders unwichtig ist, zeigen eine höhere Wahrscheinlichkeit, selbstständig tätig zu sein, während diese Arbeits- und Lebensziele für Absolventen weniger entscheidend sind. Die Ergebnisse zeigen aber auch, dass Absolventinnen und Absolventen hinsichtlich ihres unternehmerischen Persönlichkeitsprofils gleichermaßen gut für eine berufliche Selbstständigkeit ausgestattet sind. Das Papier schließt mit Überlegungen, wie die berufliche Selbstständigkeit insbesondere bei Hochschulabsolventinnen gefördert werden kann." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag)

Zitatform

Machokoto, Michael & Eugene Bempong Nyantakyi (2023): Are women-owned enterprises better for employees? In: Economics Letters, Jg. 232. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2023.111368

Abstract

"This study provides novel survey-based insights from an under-researched developing market perspective into whether women-owned enterprises offer better working environments despite being resource-constrained and subject to engendered restrictions. Using a hand-collected survey-based dataset from Kenya and Tanzania, we find that women-owned enterprises provide more training programs, pension coverage, health insurance, female and youth employment opportunities, and are more innovative. We attribute these findings to the fact that female participation leads to a more empathic and socially responsible approach to decision-making, resulting in better employee welfare outcomes. Our findings echo the need to spur equitable and sustained economic growth by eliminating engendered restrictions and providing more resources to female entrepreneurs in developing markets." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 Elsevier) ((en))

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Metzger, Georg (2023): KfW-Gründungsmonitor 2023: Gründungstätigkeit in Deutschland: im Spannungsfeld zwischen Fachkräftemangel und Corona-Blues. (KfW-Gründungsmonitor), Frankfurt am Main, 10 S.

Abstract

"Die Gründungstätigkeit in Deutschland ist im Jahr 2022 auf 550.000 Existenzgründungen zurückgegangen. Davon waren 222.000 Vollerwerbsgründungen (40%), und 328.000 Nebenerwerbsgründungen. Bei jeder fünften Nebenerwerbsgründung besteht allerdings die Absicht, die Selbstständigkeit zum Vollerwerb auszuweiten. Die anhaltend gute Arbeitsmarktentwicklung hat maßgeblich zu diesem Rückgang beigetragen. Der Fachkräftemangel bleibt auch in Zukunft eine große Herausforderung für die Gründungstätigkeit. Insgesamt ist vor allem die Zahl der Gründerinnen gesunken, während sich die Zahl der Gründer kaum veränderte." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Oladipo, Oluwasheyi, Katarzyna Platt & Hyoung Suk Shim (2023): Female entrepreneurs managing from home. In: Small business economics, Jg. 61, H. 2, S. 447-464. DOI:10.1007/s11187-022-00713-7

Abstract

"Gender roles demand that women devote more time to non-market labor such as childcare and household responsibilities. Therefore, the labor market hinders women's ability to compete with their male counterparts, whose time is less subject to the demands of non-market work. The result is a performance gap between men and women. To obtain the flexibility to more efficiently perform both their market and non-market work, many women choose to be self-employed and operate their businesses from home. Using a large sample of US firms, we find that women who choose to operate their own businesses from home are able to narrow the performance gap between men and women entrepreneurs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Zitatform

Smyk, Magdalena, Siri Terjesen & Joanna Tyrowicz (2023): Gender wage inequality and women's self-employment. (GRAPE working paper / Group for Research in Applied Economics 88), Warszawa, 30 S.

Abstract

"Theoretical literature on entrepreneurship hints that labor market inequality may constitute a relevant push factor for self-employment. Drawing on empirical confirmation, this insight is used in many policy recommendations. We propose a new approach to test and quantify the link between labor market inequality and self-employment of women. We provide a novel and rich data set labor market inequality for women, utilizing estimates of gender wage gaps specific for age and education group, comparable for 36 countries over ten years. We exploit rich and diverse international data on patterns of self-employment from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. Our results show that greater gender wage inequality is associated with higher prevalence of self-employment for both men and women. Relative to men, women are actually discouraged from self-employment, which is consistent with the notion that discriminative labor markets are typically signs of discriminative societies. We show that actually necessity self-employment is more rare form of self-employment in unequal societies, which is consistent with explanations stressing access to resources, networks and markets as relevant dimensions of gender inequality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2023): Schwanger- und Mutterschaft für Gründerinnen und Selbständige erleichtern. Antrag der Fraktion der CDU/CSU. (Verhandlungen des Deutschen Bundestages. Drucksachen 20/6911 (23.05.2023)), Berlin, 3 S.

Zitatform

Crecente, Fernando, María Sarabia & María Teresa del Val (2022): The value of entrepreneurship by gender on regional behaviour. In: International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Jg. 18, H. 1, S. 435-453. DOI:10.1007/s11365-021-00777-z

Abstract

"This paper examines how the value of entrepreneurship by gender is related to regional behaviour. Researchers have traditionally defined entrepreneurial organization as separate to gender and to economic growth. Using the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) we complete a dataset of 50 countries using variables such as total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) and opportunity-driven entrepreneurial activity (OPP). The methodology used proposes an analysis of regional convergence, comparing the evolution over time of both the rate of entrepreneurial activity and the ratios of opportunity-driven and need-driven entrepreneurial activity, distinguishing by gender. On the other hand, a regression model is proposed that explains the greater presence of female entrepreneurship. The results show that entrepreneurship by gender is an important factor to define different cluster of countries according to how men and women entrepreneurs create new economic opportunities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))