Die Arbeitsmarktsituation von LGBTQI-Personen
In den vergangenen zwei Jahrzehnten hat die gesellschaftliche Akzeptanz von LGBTQI-Personen (lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer, inter) deutlich zugenommen. Auch die rechtliche Gleichstellung am Arbeitsmarkt wurde durch das Allgemeine Gleichbehandlungsgesetz (2006) gestärkt. Dennoch erfahren LGBTQI-Personen im Arbeitsleben Diskriminierung sowie Nachteile bei Einkommen und Bildungsrendite.
In diesem Dossier finden Sie eine Zusammenstellung wissenschaftlicher Publikationen zur Arbeitsmarktsituation von LGBTQI-Personen in Deutschland und im Ausland.
Im Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
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Literaturhinweis
Beyond the gender binary: wage inequality and occupational segregation among transgender and nonbinary workers (2026)
Bai, Yihong; Chum, Antony; Liu, Qian;Zitatform
Bai, Yihong, Antony Chum & Qian Liu (2026): Beyond the gender binary: wage inequality and occupational segregation among transgender and nonbinary workers. In: Review of Economics of the Household, S. 1-24. DOI:10.1007/s11150-026-09855-z
Abstract
"This study examines labor market disparities across gender identities in Canada using data from the 2021 Canadian Census, the first national census to identify transgender and nonbinary individuals. We analyze employment probabilities and hourly wages among six gender groups: cisgender men, cisgender women, transgender men, transgender women, and nonbinary individuals assigned male or female at birth. Transgender and nonbinary individuals are 8–14% points less likely to be employed than cisgender men and earn 20–30% lower hourly wages on average. After adjusting for demographic, occupational, and industrial characteristics, earnings gaps remain substantial, approximately 8–17%, and are largest for nonbinary individuals assigned female at birth. Subgroup analyses reveal pronounced heterogeneity across occupations: wage gaps are smallest in health-related fields but largest in management and leadership positions, where gender minorities are also underrepresented. Transgender men fare relatively better in male-dominated fields such as trades and manufacturing, while nonbinary individuals show higher representation in arts and education. Oaxaca–Blinder decompositions indicate that about one-quarter to one-half of the overall wage gap is explained by differences in observable characteristics, with the remainder unexplained. The findings document persistent and uneven economic disadvantages for gender-diverse populations and highlight occupational contexts where barriers to inclusion are most pronounced." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Einleitung: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer geschlechtergerechten Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik (2026)
Zitatform
Bothfeld, Silke, Christian Hohendanner, Petra Schütt & Aysel Yollu-Tok (2026): Einleitung: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer geschlechtergerechten Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik. In: S. Bothfeld, C. Hohendanner, P. Schütt & A. Yollu-Tok (Hrsg.) (2026): Geschlechtergerecht gestalten. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik, S. 9-26.
Abstract
"Wer über Geschlechtergerechtigkeit spricht, kommt an der begrifflichen Unterscheidung zwischen Gleichberechtigung und Gleichstellungspolitik nicht vorbei. Diese Differenz ist grundlegend für das Verständnis politischer, sozialer und ökonomischer Maßnahmen zur Überwindung geschlechterbezogener Ungleichheiten. Gleichberechtigung meint die rechtlich garantierte Gleichheit von Frauen und Männern – wie sie etwa in Artikel 3 des Grundgesetzes verankert ist. Sie garantiert allen Menschen denselben Zugang zu Rechten: zum Bildungssystem, zum Arbeitsmarkt, zu politischen Ämtern. Doch so unverzichtbar diese rechtliche Grundlage ist, so unzureichend ist sie, wenn es um die tatsächliche Teilhabe in einer nach wie vor von struktureller Ungleichheit geprägten Gesellschaft geht. Hier setzt die Gleichstellungspolitik an: Sie begnügt sich nicht mit der formalen Gleichheit, sondern zielt auf faktische Chancengleichheit. Für die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter wurde daher im Artikel 3 Abs. 2 (»Männer und Frauen sind gleichberechtigt.«) 1994 der Zusatz aufgenommen »Der Staat fördert die tatsächliche Durchsetzung der Gleichberechtigung von Frauen und Männern und wirkt auf die Beseitigung bestehender Nachteile hin«. Die Gleichstellungspolitik soll in diesem Sinne bestehende Benachteiligungen – etwa beim Einkommen, bei der Verteilung von Sorgearbeit, beim Zugang zu Führungspositionen oder in den sozialen Sicherungssystemen – sichtbar machen und Instrumente entwickeln, um Ungleichheiten abzubauen. Gleichstellungspolitik bedeutet nicht Privilegierung oder Sonderbehandlung, sondern sie ist Ausdruck eines demokratischen Gestaltungsauftrags: Sie soll sicherstellen, dass Gleichberechtigung nicht nur auf dem Papier steht, sondern im gesellschaftlichen Alltag wirksam wird. Dieser Sammelband greift zentrale Fragen dieser Gestaltungsaufgabe im Rahmen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik auf und versammelt Beiträge, die sich mit geschlechterbezogenen Ungleichheiten am Arbeitsmarkt und im Sozialstaat befassen – empirisch fundiert, theoretisch reflektiert und mit einem gemeinsamen Ziel: Geschlechtergerechtigkeit nicht nur zu fordern, sondern Hinweise und Vorschläge für die Gestaltung von konkreten Strukturen und politischen Maßnahmen zu präsentieren." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
What shapes hiring outcomes for LGBTQ+ job candidates? A systematic review and research agenda (2026)
Zitatform
Corlett, Sara, Donatella Di Marco, Rain Ortiz-Salado & Alicia Arenas (2026): What shapes hiring outcomes for LGBTQ+ job candidates? A systematic review and research agenda. In: The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Jg. 37, H. 6, S. 1022-1078. DOI:10.1080/09585192.2026.2678448
Abstract
"Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, and queer (LGBTQ+) individuals continue to face hiring discrimination. Despite the adverse implications of such discrimination for both LGBTQ+ individuals and organizations, research on this topic is fragmented across disciplines, making it difficult to inform effective HRM interventions. To address this problem, we synthesized the existing quantitative evidence on the factors influencing LGBTQ+ hiring outcomes. We conducted a search across four databases, yielding 4034 results. After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria and updating the original search, 66 articles remained. Our analysis identifies a diverse set of antecedents, which we organize within a multilevel framework. These antecedents include macro-level factors, organization and job-specific characteristics, and individual-level attributes of both hiring decision-makers and job candidates. In addition, the review highlights significant gaps in the literature. Notably, the literature disproportionately focuses on gay and lesbian applicants, with limited attention to trans and bisexual applicants, and offers little evidence on HRM practices to mitigate LGBTQ+ hiring discrimination. By consolidating existing findings, this review identifies key priorities for future research, particularly the role of emerging hiring technologies and the need for intersectional approaches and provides guidance for HRM practitioners to reduce LGBTQ* discrimination, including through diversity policies resilient to political shifts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender Transition and Labor Market Outcomes: A Sibling-Based Comparison of Transgender Individuals in Sweden (2026)
Zitatform
Dujeancourt, Erwan (2026): Gender Transition and Labor Market Outcomes: A Sibling-Based Comparison of Transgender Individuals in Sweden. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 102. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2026.102900
Abstract
"This study provides the first evidence of labor market outcome disparities between transgender individuals and their siblings in Europe, utilizing comprehensive Swedish population register data from 2002 to 2022. Focusing on a cohort of over 1100 transgender individuals who underwent legal gender changes between 2013 and 2021, I employ a difference-in-differences design comparing transgender individuals to their cisgender siblings before and after legal gender change. The analysis reveals significant disparities in employment and labor income. Transgender individuals are less likely to be employed and earn lower labor incomes than their cisgender sib lings. Moreover, transgender women experience a decline in their employment following legal gender changes relative to their cisgender brothers. Results suggest that industry sorting contributes to these disparities, as transgender individuals are more likely to work in lower-paying, female-dominated industries than cisgender men. Following legal gender changes, transgender women tend to leave male-dominated industries such as construction, while transgender men are more likely to enter gender-balanced industries like service sectors. The f indings in this paper highlight the economic vulnerabilities experienced by transgender individuals in Sweden and emphasize the need for targeted policy interventions to reduce these inequalities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
A Marriage Premium for Whom? Sexual Identity, Relationship Status and Earnings (2026)
Zitatform
Fortes de Lena, Fernanda & Diederik Boertien (2026): A Marriage Premium for Whom? Sexual Identity, Relationship Status and Earnings. In: Journal of Marriage and Family, Jg. 88, H. 1, S. 81-99. DOI:10.1111/jomf.70005
Abstract
"Objective: This article aims to understand how relationship status is associated with earnings among LGB people. Background: Previous research has found that marriage is related to higher earnings for men and lower earnings for women, but has not often considered whether this holds across different sexual identities. Method: We use the longitudinal Understanding Society data from the UK to show how the earnings of LGB individuals are associated with relationship status (single, non-residential partner, residential partner, married). Results: Cohabiting or married men generally earn more compared to single men, regardless of sexual identity. However, gay men's earnings only increase after marrying, whereas heterosexual and bisexual men's earnings increase after entering any co-residential relationship. This suggests that gay men might receive more social support or employer approval after entering a normative relationship form. Heterosexual women start earning less after marriage, whereas the impact of changes in relationship status on earnings is relatively small and non-significant for bisexual and lesbian women. These results are largely explained by paid and unpaid work hours, suggesting that the division of labor within relationships lowers earnings among heterosexual women but not among LGB women. Conclusion: LGB women's earnings depend relatively little on changes in relationship status. At the same time, gay men only receive premiums related to having a partner once they marry." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Sexismus am Arbeitsplatz: Ergebnisse einer Studie zu Erscheinungsformen, Verbreitung und Auswirkungen (2026)
Giardina, Laura; Göroğlu, Rana; Rahman, Lea; Sive, Anna; Lohaus, Stefanie;Zitatform
Giardina, Laura, Anna Sive, Lea Rahman, Rana Göroğlu & Stefanie Lohaus (2026): Sexismus am Arbeitsplatz. Ergebnisse einer Studie zu Erscheinungsformen, Verbreitung und Auswirkungen. Berlin, 2026-05-00.
Abstract
"Die vorliegende Studie beleuchtet das Ausmaß, die Erscheinungsformen und die Folgen von Sexismus am Arbeitsplatz in Deutschland. Sie soll dazu beitragen, eine Forschungslücke zu schließen. Zudem soll sie ein umfassendes empirisches Verständnis dafür ermögli chen, wie und wie häufig Sexismus im beruflichen Kon text auftritt, welche Personengruppen besonders betrof fen sind und welche Auswirkungen dies auf Einzelne sowie Organisationen und Betriebe hat. Grundlage der Studie ist ein Mixed-Methods-Ansatz: Neben einer quantitativen, repräsentativen Befragung von Erwerbs tätigen wurde eine qualitative, ethnografisch angelegte Tagebuchaufzeichnung durchgeführt. Die kombinierte Methode ermöglicht ein umfassendes Bild zu Sexismus am Arbeitsplatz. Dabei berücksichtigt die Befragung nicht nur Frauen und Männer, sondern ausdrücklich auch trans, inter und nicht-binäre Personen, was einen differenzierten Blick auf Diskriminierung aufgrund des Geschlechts ermöglicht." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Intergenerational Mobility by Sexuality (2026)
Zitatform
Groes, Fane, Mathias Fjællegaard Jensen & Morten Kjær Thomsen (2026): Intergenerational Mobility by Sexuality. (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 21557), London, 52 S., App.
Abstract
"Intergenerational mobility has been shown to vary across groups defined by family-level characteristics such as race, neighbourhood, and parental immigration status. We provide the first population-wide evidence that the relationship between parental background and adult children's earnings, health, fertility, and family formation is also stratified by sexuality - an individual-level characteristic that varies within families. To do so, we develop a new strategy to identify same-sex and different-sex couples in Danish administrative data using joint financial commitments. Our approach mitigates limitations associated with non-representative surveys and cross-sectional data on sexuality. Drawing on identity economics and minority stress theory, we propose a conceptual framework in which deviation from the social prescription of different-sex attraction generates identity costs that may decline with parental resources through reduced exposure to discrimination and enhanced coping capacity. Empirically, we find that disparities generally persist across the parental income distribution, though severe mental health conditions are particularly elevated among same-sex attracted individuals from low-income families. We explore parent-child relationships as potential mechanisms, finding that same-sex attracted individuals live farther from parents across the income distribution. Results are robust to controlling for unobserved parental heterogeneity through sibling fixed effects, though they vary across childhood regions and cohorts. Our findings suggest that intergenerational mobility varies not only with factors shared by siblings but also with individual-level characteristics, such as sexuality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Between inclusion and disconnection: LGBTQ Workers and the challenge of union renewal (2026)
Zitatform
Mills, Suzanne, William Foley & Noah Yang (2026): Between inclusion and disconnection: LGBTQ Workers and the challenge of union renewal. In: The Journal of Industrial Relations, Jg. 68, H. 1, S. 143-165. DOI:10.1177/00221856251337196
Abstract
"Over the past three decades, unions have played a critical role in advancing the rights and equality of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) people and other equity-seeking groups within and outside of unions. Accordingly, most unions in industrialized countries have institutionalized equity internally and through external campaigns, often delivered by union centrals. Scholarship about these initiatives has been largely celebratory, arguing that they have rendered unions more representative and socially just. This paper draws on interview and survey responses to explore LGBTQ union members’ experiences and perceptions of their unions in two deindustrializing cities. Workers who participated in union LGBTQ initiatives felt protected by their unions, less isolated in the workplace and more connected to coworkers and their unions. More commonly, however, workers faced barriers to accessing LGBTQ programming, felt disconnected from their unions and preferred employer to union support. These findings qualify the assumption that upscaling LGBTQ initiatives will advance union renewal. Instead, we suggest that strategies that foster inclusion in the workplace and union local are more likely to promote union engagement among, and social justice for, LGBTQ workers, particularly in places without preexisting support for LGBTQ people." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Pay gaps in the National Health Service: Gender and sexuality (2026)
Mumford, Karen Ann ; Lockyer, Bridget; Smith, Benjamin Arthur; Aguirre, Edith ; Einarsdöttir, Anna ; Sayli, Melisa ;Zitatform
Mumford, Karen Ann, Edith Aguirre, Anna Einarsdöttir, Bridget Lockyer, Melisa Sayli & Benjamin Arthur Smith (2026): Pay gaps in the National Health Service: Gender and sexuality. In: PLoS ONE, Jg. 21, H. 3. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0342384
Abstract
"Studies investigating the relationship between gender, sexual identity and pay have increased in number and scope over the last three decades, enabling a greater understanding of the outcomes facing LGB+ workers in the labour market. Pay gap studies that also allow for the disclosure of sexual identity in the workplace are, however, very rare. Using a rich survey of employees from the National Health Service in England, this article considers the relationship between relative pay, LGB+ identity, and disclosure for both men and women. While the findings reveal substantial heterogeneity within the LGB + , disclosure is shown to be related to higher pay from larger returns on the endowments of LGB+ employees (men or women), especially so for men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The ‘double whammy’: Associations between LGBTQ+ identity, non-standard employment and workplace well-being (2025)
Zitatform
Ablaza, Christine, Francisco Perales & Nicki Elkin (2025): The ‘double whammy’: Associations between LGBTQ+ identity, non-standard employment and workplace well-being. In: The Economic and Labour Relations Review, Jg. 36, H. 2, S. 370-387. DOI:10.1017/elr.2025.8
Abstract
"Despite societal shifts in attitudes towards gender and sexuality, LGBTQ+ individuals continue to experience multiple forms of labour-market disadvantage – including greater unemployment, lower job satisfaction, and slower career progression. However, existing scholarship has paid little attention to the comparative employment conditions of LGBTQ+ and non-LGBTQ+ individuals. Leveraging unique data from a large, Australian, employer-employee dataset (2024 AWEI Employee Survey ), we fill this knowledge gap by examining the relationships between LGBTQ+ status, non-standard employment (NSE), and workplace well-being. Consistent with our theoretical expectations, we provide novel empirical evidence of the ‘double whammy’ faced by LGBTQ+ employees in relation to NSE. On the one hand, LGBTQ+ employees are more likely to be in certain forms of NSE than non-LGBTQ+ employees; on the other, their workplace well-being is more negatively impacted by these employment arrangements. These findings bear important lessons for policy and practice, indicating that closing the gap between LGBTQ+ and non-LGBTQ+ workers requires careful consideration of their employment arrangements and the circumstances that surround them." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The demography of sexual identity development and disclosure among LGB people in Europe (2025)
Zitatform
Caprinali, Anna & Agnese Vitali (2025): The demography of sexual identity development and disclosure among LGB people in Europe. In: Demographic Research, Jg. 52, S. 125-140. DOI:10.4054/demres.2025.52.5
Abstract
"BACKGROUND Despite a non-negligible share of youth in Europe identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or queer, we know little about the demography behind the development and disclosure of one’s sexual identity, particularly regarding their timing and their variation by LGBTQIA identity. This limited understanding hinders the use of sexual orientation as a predictor in social sciences. OBJECTIVE We provide descriptive evidence on the demography of sexual identity development and disclosure among LGB people in Europe. We focus on age at self-disclosure and age at first coming out to others and describe differences across European countries, birth cohorts, and between lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. METHODS We use the 2019 EU LGBTI II Survey data administered by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights and employ descriptive statistics, t-test, and survival analyses to investigate age at self-disclosure and first coming out. RESULTS The age at self-disclosure has remained stable across successive cohorts of LGB people in Europe, whereas the age at coming out to others has decreased considerably. Accordingly, the gap between age at self-disclosure and age at coming out to others has reduced across cohorts. However, longer age gaps are consistently observed among LGB men across all cohorts and countries. Age at self-disclosure varies considerably across Europe, being highest in Central European countries and lowest in Eastern European countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Max-Planck-Institut für demographische Forschung) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Employment discrimination against transgender women in England (2025)
Zitatform
Drydakis, Nick (2025): Employment discrimination against transgender women in England. In: International Journal of Manpower, Jg. 46, H. 1, S. 58-74. DOI:10.1108/ijm-09-2023-0528
Abstract
"Purpose: The study aimed to assess whether transgender women, who were students at a university in London, England, faced hiring discrimination when seeking employment. Design/methodology/approach Three comparable university classmates—a cisgender woman, a cisgender man and a transgender woman—studying Engineering applied to the same job openings. Similarly, another set of three university classmates —a cisgender woman, a cisgender man and a transgender woman—studying Social Work applied to the same job openings. The degree of discrimination was quantified by calculating the difference in the number of interview invitations received by each group. Findings When three comparable university classmates apply for the same job openings, the rate of interview invitations differs based on gender identity. For cisgender women, the invitation rate is 31.3%, while for cisgender men, it stands at 35.1%. However, for transgender women, the rate drops significantly to 10.4%. Additionally, transgender women face further challenges in male-dominated sectors (STEM), where their chance of being invited for a job interview is even lower compared to those in female-dominated sectors, with a reduction of 8.7 percentage points. The study also reveals that firms with written equality policies on gender identity diversity show a 25.7 percentage point increase in invitation rates for transgender women compared to firms without such policies. Furthermore, the research highlights that negative beliefs among job recruiters regarding various aspects of transgender women, including their gender identity status, disclosure, job performance, vocational relationships and turnover, contribute to their exclusion from job interviews. Moreover, for transgender women who do receive interview invitations, these tend to be for lower-paid jobs compared to those received by cisgender women (by 20%) and cisgender men (by 21.3%). This wage sorting into lower-paid vacancies suggests a penalty in terms of lower returns on education, which could drive wage and income differences. Practical implications Transgender women received a higher number of job interview invitations when firms had written equality policies on gender identity diversity. This outcome can help policymakers identify actions to reduce the exclusion of transgender people from the labour market. Originality/value The study gathers information from job recruiters to quantify the roots of hiring discrimination against transgender women. It also enables an examination of whether workplaces' written equality policies on gender identity diversity are related to transgender women’s invitations to job interviews." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Stimulating (In)equality? The Earnings Penalty in Different-Sex and Female Same-Sex Couples Transitioning to Parenthood in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden (2025)
Zitatform
Evertsson, Marie, Ylva Moberg & Maaike van der Vleuten (2025): Stimulating (In)equality? The Earnings Penalty in Different-Sex and Female Same-Sex Couples Transitioning to Parenthood in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. In: American journal of sociology, Jg. 130, H. 6, S. 1477-1525. DOI:10.1086/735884
Abstract
"The Nordic countries are known as family-friendly welfare states, yet gendered work-care divisions remain. We use a case study approach focusing on the key differences in work-family policy packages in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Using Population registers, we compare the earnings trajectories of same- and different-sex couples for the three years before and five years after a first birth. The findings match theoretical argumentslinking cash-for-care policies to familialistic outcomes: They show that in Finland, the institutional framework leads to unequal divisions of paid work and care, resulting in largeearnings penalties affecting the birth mother in both same-sex and different-sex couples. Inegalitarian Denmark and Sweden, but also in supposedly more familialistic Norway, thesepenalties are considerably smaller for same-sex couples. This exemplifies how inequalities decrease when policies stimulate equality, and as a result can reduce the influence ofheterosexual gender dynamics." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Non-binary gender identity expression in the workplace and the role of supportive HRM practices, co-worker allyship, and job autonomy (2025)
Zitatform
Fletcher, Luke & Janusz Swierczynski (2025): Non-binary gender identity expression in the workplace and the role of supportive HRM practices, co-worker allyship, and job autonomy. In: The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Jg. 36, H. 7, S. 1068-1101. DOI:10.1080/09585192.2023.2284191
Abstract
"In this paper, we shed light on how non-binary people express their gender identity in the workplace by drawing on self-discrepancy and self-verification theories. We argue that non-binary workers may experience a discrepancy between their actual and ideal expression of their gender identity at work and be motivated to prevent this due to a desire for others to see them as they see themselves. A mixed quantitative/qualitative survey of 160 non-binary workers in the UK and USA reveals that there are various ways non-binary workers express their gender identity at work via physical appearance and clothing, gestures and language, posture and movement, and other communication signals. However, most non-binary workers may perceive a moderate level of discrepancy between their current and ideal-future expression of their gender identity at work. We find that such discrepancies are less likely to occur when organizations promote supportive gender identity related HRM practices (such as flexible dress code and pronoun policies), co-worker allyship, and job autonomy. Overall, we contribute to knowledge about how non-binary people view their gender identity expression at work and what HR practitioners, managers, and co-workers can do to support them." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Discrimination Preferences (2025)
Zitatform
Gagnon, Nickolas & Daniele Nosenzo (2025): Discrimination Preferences. (EconStor Preprints 323979), Kiel, 107 S. DOI:10.2139/ssrn.5345787
Abstract
"We reconsider discrimination preferences through moral lenses and conduct experiments to systematically investigate these preferences using representative UK samples. Specifically, we evaluate the distribution of individual preferences for and against taste-and statistical-based discrimination across three domains—ethnicity, gender, and LGBTQ+ status. Using over 60,000 anonymous decisions affecting how workers are paid from more than 3,500 individuals, we document that most individuals prefer to engage in at least one type of discrimination, that there is substantial heterogeneity in preferences, and that the existence of multiple preferences changes our understanding of why individuals engage or not in discrimination. Among others, we examine how preferences relate across domains, map them onto socio-demographic characteristics, politics, support for policies, and gender wage gaps, and study underlying redistributive principles and effects of wage transparency." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Doing and undoing gender: examining nonbinary and cisgender expression at work in the U.S. (2025)
Zitatform
Hernandez, Theresa R., Evan Nault, Isaac E. Sabat & Toni P. Kostecki (2025): Doing and undoing gender: examining nonbinary and cisgender expression at work in the U.S. In: The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Jg. 36, H. 7, S. 1215-1248. DOI:10.1080/09585192.2024.2449531
Abstract
"We examine the experiences of nonbinary and cisgender people in expressing their gender identity at work. Gender expression (GE) is important to study given that gender is embedded in nearly every aspect of U.S. society; however, this gender construction is binary, thereby excluding those whose gender falls outside of this paradigm. As of yet, research has not examined the specific GE experiences of nonbinary and cisgender individuals at work. To address this gap, we conducted a qualitative study of the workplace gender expression practices of nonbinary and cisgender employees. We found that nonbinary and cisgender people used similar tools for expressing and concealing their gender identity; however, they used these tools for different purposes. Nonbinary people expressed their gender by limiting association with assigned sex/gender at birth (AS/GAB) whereas cisgender people expressed their gender by promoting association with AS/GAB. The converse occurred when each group concealed their gender identity. Our initial findings lend support for the applicability of the Button (Citation2004) identity management framework to nonbinary gender expression experiences and social recategorization theory (Roberts et al., Citation2008) to cisgender gender expression experiences. We conclude with recommendations for improving workplace conditions that would support authentic gender expression at work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Penalizing Nonconformity: Gender Nonconformity at the Intersection of Gender and Sexual Identity in the Labor Market (2025)
Hsu, Jaime;Zitatform
Hsu, Jaime (2025): Penalizing Nonconformity: Gender Nonconformity at the Intersection of Gender and Sexual Identity in the Labor Market. In: Social problems, Jg. 72, H. 4, S. 1793-1814. DOI:10.1093/socpro/spae050
Abstract
"Previous research has identified wage penalties for women and sexual minority workers. However, these analyses did not consider how gender nonconformity may influence our current understanding of these penalties. Therefore, this study aims to explore the wage penalty associated with gender nonconformity at the intersection of gender and sexual identity. It theorizes how gender nonconformity contributes to labor market inequality by distinguishing the impacts of gender nonconformity, gender identity, and sexual identity on wages. Using a novel measurement in the fifth wave of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, the results indicate that heterosexual men and women experience wage penalties for being gender nonconforming compared to their conforming counterparts. Interestingly, gender nonconformity is not linked to wage penalties for gay, lesbian, and bisexual workers. These wage penalties persist even after adjusting for marital and parental statuses among nonconforming heterosexual men and women. Furthermore, nonconforming straight men earn significantly less than both conforming and nonconforming gay/bisexual men. These findings offer insights for future research to explore the labor market consequences of gender nonconformity for straight individuals, as well as gender and sexual minority workers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Non-binary experiences of (gender-based) violence at work (2025)
Zitatform
Humbert, Anne Laure, Charikleia Tzanakou, Sofia Strid & Anke Lipinsky (2025): Non-binary experiences of (gender-based) violence at work. In: The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Jg. 36, H. 7, S. 1249-1281. DOI:10.1080/09585192.2025.2507964
Abstract
"The experiences of non-binary people remain underexplored in HRM research. With limited knowledge and evidence, putting in place diversity management policies and practices is challenging. This article advances understandings of the experiences of non-binary people at work by providing empirical evidence from a survey conducted in 15 countries across Europe with nearly 18,000 staff at universities and research organizations, including 173 who identified as non-binary. Results suggest that non-binary people are more likely than other gender identity groups to feel socially excluded and unsafe at work, as well as more likely to be subjected to psychological violence and sexual harassment. The analysis shows that experiences of gender-based violence mediate the relationship between being non-binary and feeling socially excluded, unsafe or unwell at work. By integrating minority stress theory into the study of workplace inequalities, this research deepens the understanding of how systemic stigmatization operates within gendered and binarist organizations. These findings emphazise the need to integrate considerations of gender-based violence into diversity management interventions and disrupt binary gender norms to ensure inclusion and safety at work. By advancing diversity, equality, and inclusion scholarship, this article provides actionable insights for HRM practitioners to address the unique challenges faced by non-binary employees." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Analyzing Trans and Nonbinary Workers' Response to Workplace Discrimination (2025)
Hutchinson, Brook ; Miller, Gabe H.; Marquez-Velarde, Guadalupe; Suárez, Mario I. ; Glass, Christy ; Shircliff, Jesse E. ;Zitatform
Hutchinson, Brook, Jesse E. Shircliff, Christy Glass, Gabe H. Miller, Guadalupe Marquez-Velarde & Mario I. Suárez (2025): Analyzing Trans and Nonbinary Workers' Response to Workplace Discrimination. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 52, H. 2, S. 278-308. DOI:10.1177/07308884241240079
Abstract
"Workplace discrimination against trans and nonbinary workers is pervasive and contributes to high rates of unemployment, underemployment, and economic precarity. Scholars have begun to identify the ways cisnormativity is embedded in workplace organizations in ways that contribute to hostile work environments for trans and nonbinary workers. However, relatively little research has explored the strategies trans and nonbinary workers use to navigate such environments. The current study contributes to this growing field by exploring the predictors of worker agency among trans and nonbinary workers. Drawing on data from the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey, this study analyzes the role of social status, including race, gender, and social class, and institutional protections, including union membership and antidiscrimination policies, in shaping trans and nonbinary workers’ responses to discrimination. Our findings suggest that lower status workers are more likely than higher status workers to rely on self-protective measures that pose risks to their health and well-being, while comprehensive antidiscrimination policies enhance the ability of all workers to pursue redressive action. We consider the implications of our findings for workplace policy and practice." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender-fair language and diversity labels in German job ads impacting job attraction: findings from two experimental studies (2025)
Zitatform
Kleiss, Denise F. & Martin K.J. Waiguny (2025): Gender-fair language and diversity labels in German job ads impacting job attraction: findings from two experimental studies. In: Equality, diversity and inclusion, Jg. 44, H. 9, S. 103-123. DOI:10.1108/edi-07-2024-0334
Abstract
"Purpose: This study aims to analyze how employer branding strategies, specifically the use of gender-fair language and diversity indicators related to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersexual, +additional identities (LGBTQI+) inclusion affect the attraction of potential job candidates to organizations. These elements serve as signals conveying a company’s values, helping to shape its image to prospective employees. While prior research has examined employer branding strategies broadly, there is a lack of evidence on the impacts of combined gendered language and LGBTQI+ indicators in job descriptions. This study addresses this gap by investigating how these strategies interact to influence candidate attraction, focusing on the interplay between gendered language and LGBTQI+ inclusiveness signals with the use of employer labels. Design/methodology/approach We conducted two randomized between-subjects experimental (online) vignette studies with German participants and assessed organizational and job attraction as dependent variables. In Experiment 1 (N = 164), we used a three (diversity language: generic masculinum, binary gendered and inclusive gendered) X two (LGBTQI+ label: yes vs no) design and in experiment 2 (N = 475) as replication and extension a three (diversity language) X three (label: none vs rainbow heart vs LGBTQI+) design. Findings Our data indicate that for the German respondents’ job descriptions with inclusive gendered (with a gender-star *) language, it is perceived as less attractive compared to the generic male and female forms mixed. Based on congruence theory, we show that if an LGBTQI+ label is present, this negative effect is mitigated. Furthermore, incorporating a label showed significantly better performance than just using any LGBTQI+-related visuals that are not accredited. Originality/value Our study addresses a key research gap by exploring the combined influence of gender-fair language and LGBTQI+ diversity indicators on job candidate attraction. While previous research has examined these factors in isolation, our study uniquely analyzed their intersection and impact on organizational attractiveness within a German context." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))