Abstract

Over the past decades commuting distances in Germany have steadily risen, although commuting costs increased over-proportionally. Explaining such phenomena is not straightforward, as urban economic theory predicts increasing commuting distances for higher income. Arguing with occupational specialization, residential inertia and mono- as well as polycentric labor markets, we assume regionally diverse commutes and differential income effects on distances. Using a mixed-effects design and retrospective life-course data from the German ALWA-ADIAB survey, we show that commutes rise from urban to rural areas. However, first and foremost employees residing in urban areas increase their relative commuting distance for higher income. In rural areas, where appropriate jobs are rare, overall longer distances into economic centers seem to prohibit a positive income effect. The results support the finding that the increased commuting distances in Germany can mainly be ascribed to a change in commuting behavior of urban and suburban residents.