Evaluation der Arbeitsmarktpolitik
Arbeitsmarktpolitik soll neben der Wirtschafts- und Strukturpolitik sowie der Arbeitszeit- und Lohnpolitik einen Beitrag zur Bewältigung der Arbeitslosigkeit leisten. Aber ist sie dabei auch erfolgreich und stehen die eingebrachten Mittel in einem angemessenen Verhältnis zu den erzielten Wirkungen? Die Evaluationsforschung geht der Frage nach den Beschäftigungseffekten und den sozialpolitischen Wirkungen auf individueller und gesamtwirtschaftlicher Ebene nach. Das Dossier bietet weiterführende Informationen zu Evaluationsmethoden und den Wirkungen von einzelnen Maßnahmen für verschiedene Zielgruppen.
Zurück zur Übersicht- Grundlagenbeiträge
- Methoden und Datensatzbeschreibungen
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Typologie der Maßnahmen
- Institutionen der Arbeitsförderung
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Vermittlung und Beratung
- Prozessoptimierung
- Profiling und Case Management, Eingliederungsvereinbarung
- Unterstützung bei der Arbeitsuche
- Vermittlung durch Dritte
- Vermittlung von Beziehern von Bürgergeld, Sozialhilfe oder Arbeitslosengeld II
- Zusammenarbeit von Arbeits- und Sozialverwaltung
- Job-Center
- Personal-Service-Agentur
- Zeitarbeit
- (gemeinnützige) Arbeitnehmerüberlassung
- Vermittlungsgutscheine
- Berufsberatung
- Aus- und Weiterbildung
- Subventionierung von Beschäftigung
- Öffentlich geförderte Beschäftigung
- Transfer- und Mobilitätsmaßnahmen
- berufliche Rehabilitation
- Lohnersatzleistungen / Einkommensunterstützung
- Altersteilzeit und Vorruhestand
- Sonstiges
- Typologie der Arbeitslosen
- besondere Personengruppen
- Geschlecht
- Geografischer Bezug
- Alter
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Literaturhinweis
Optimal unemployment insurance with monitoring and sanctions (2002)
Zitatform
Boone, Jan, Peter Fredriksson, Bertil Holmlund & Jan C. van Ours (2002): Optimal unemployment insurance with monitoring and sanctions. (Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2002,21), Uppsala, 34 S.
Abstract
"This paper analyzes the design of optimal unemployment insurance in a search equilibrium framework where search e?ort among the unemployed is not perfectly observable. We examine to what extent the optimal policy involves monitoring of search e?ort and benefit sanctions if observed search is deemed insu?cient. We find that introducing monitoring and sanctions represents a welfare improvement for reasonable estimates of monitoring costs; this conclusion holds both relative to a system featuring indefinite payments of benefits and a system with a time limit on unemployment benefit receipt." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen als: IZA discussion paper , 401 -
Literaturhinweis
Labor market programs, the discouraged-worker effect, and labor force participation (2002)
Johansson, Kerstin;Zitatform
Johansson, Kerstin (2002): Labor market programs, the discouraged-worker effect, and labor force participation. (Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2002,09), Uppsala, 53 S.
Abstract
"This paper estimates the macroeconomic effect of labor market programs on labor force participation. Labor market programs could counteract business-cycle variation in the participation rate that is due to the discouraged-worker effect, and they could prevent labor force outflow. An equation that determines the participation rate is estimated with GMM, using panel data (1986-1998) for Sweden's municipalities. The results indicate that labor market programs have relatively large and positive effects on labor force participation. If the number of participants in labor market programs increases temporarily by 100, the labor force increases immediately by around 63 persons. The effect is temporary so the number of participants in the labor force returns to the old level in the next period. If the number of participants in programs is permanently increased, the labor force increases by about 70 persons in the long run. Programs are reducing the business-cycle variation in labor force participation because the effect is positive and programs are counter-cyclical and they counteract the discouraged-worker effect in the long run. The results indicate that programs could prevent labor force outflow; participants who would have left labor force in the absence of programs are may now be participating because of the programs. Wages and vacancies have positive long- and short-run effects on participation rate. Open unemployment, the job destruction rate, and proportions of persons between ages 18-24 and 55-65 have negative long run effects on the participation rate." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Do labor market programs affect labor force participation? (2002)
Johansson, Kerstin;Zitatform
Johansson, Kerstin (2002): Do labor market programs affect labor force participation? (Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2002,03), Uppsala, 23 S.
Abstract
"This paper estimates the macroeconomic effect of labor market programs on labor force participation. Labor market programs could counteract business cycle variation in the participation rate that is due to the discouraged-worker effect, and they could prevent labor force outflow. An equation that determines the participation rate is estimated using panel data (1986-1998) for Sweden's municipalities. The results indicate that labor market programs have relatively large and positive effects on labor force participation. If the number of participants in labor market programs increases temporarily by 100, the labor force increases by around 63 persons. The effect is temporary so the number of participants in the labor force returns to the old level in the next period. If the number of participants in programs is permanently increased, the labor force increases by around 70 persons. The results indicate that programs prevent labor force outflow because participants who would have left the labor force in the absence of programs are now participating because of the programs, Income and vacancies have positive long- and short-run effects on participation rate. Open unemployment, job destruction rate, and proportion of persons between ages 18-24 and 55-65 have negative long-run effects on the participation rate." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
A nonexperimental evaluation of training programs for the unemployment in Sweden (2002)
Regner, Hakan;Zitatform
Regner, Hakan (2002): A nonexperimental evaluation of training programs for the unemployment in Sweden. In: Labour economics, Jg. 9, H. 2, S. 187-206. DOI:10.1016/S0927-5371(02)00013-1
Abstract
"This study uses a unique administrative database to evaluate employment training program effects on three samples of Swedish adult males. Alternative nonexperimental models suggest both positive and negative relationship between training and annual earnings. Model specification tests decisively reject the fixed-effect model, but not the random-growth model, which shows that specification tests can reject misspecified models. The chosen model predicts no effects or significantly negative earnings effects of the training program. One explanation for this result is that some participants may have enrolled in the program not for the purpose of making a human capital investment, but for the purpose of collecting unemployment insurance benefits." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The effect of vocational employment training on the individual transition rate from unemployment to work (2002)
Richardson, Katarina; Berg, Gerard J. van den;Zitatform
Richardson, Katarina & Gerard J. van den Berg (2002): The effect of vocational employment training on the individual transition rate from unemployment to work. (Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2002,08), Uppsala, 49 S.
Abstract
"Amongst the active labor market policy programs for the unemployed in Sweden, the vocational employment training program is the most ambitious and expensive. We analyze its effect on the individual transition rate from unemployment to employment using a unique set of administrative data and a novel empirical approach that exploits variation in the timing of training and exit to work. The approach involves the estimation of duration models, and it allows us to quantify the individual effect of training in the presence of selectivity on unobservables. The data contain the full population of unemployed in the period 1993-2000 and include multiple unemployment spells for many individuals. The results indicate a significantly positive effect on exit to work after exiting the program. Its magnitude is very large shortly after leaving the course but diminishes afterwards. If we also take account of the time spent in the program then the net effect of participation in the program on the mean unemployment duration is close to zero." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
An evaluation of the Swedish trainee replacement schemes (2002)
Sacklen, Hans;Zitatform
Sacklen, Hans (2002): An evaluation of the Swedish trainee replacement schemes. (Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2002,07), Uppsala, 35 S.
Abstract
"This paper estimates the employment effects of the Swedish trainee replacement schemes (an active labour market program that was in operation during the 1990s). The empirical analysis exploits a large and rich administrative data set, and we control for observed and unobserved selection bias by using a multiple equation model and the maximum likelihood estimation method. The estimation results point at a selection of participants having a high ex ante probability of employment. In addition, the results suggest that participation in replacement schemes increased the re-employment probability by 5 to 10 percentage points." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Differential effects of Swedish active labour market progrmmes for unemployment adults during the 1990s (2002)
Zitatform
Sianesi, Barbara (2002): Differential effects of Swedish active labour market progrmmes for unemployment adults during the 1990s. (Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2002,05), Uppsala, 52 S.
Abstract
"The paper evaluates the differential performance of the six main types of Swedish programmes that were available to adult unemployed workers entitled to unemployment benefits in the 1990s: labour market training, workplace introduction, work experience placement, relief work, trainee replacement and employment subsidies. On the basis of a large and particularly rich administrative dataset, propensity score multiple-treatment matching methods are applied to investigate the differential performance of the programmes both relative to one another and vis-à-vis more intense job search in open unemployment. Outcomes being assessed are short- and long-term employment rates as well as the probability of collecting unemployment benefits over time. Compared to waiting longer in open unemployment, all the programmes initially reduce their participants' employment probability in the short term (lock-in effect). Positive findings on more long term employment prospects are confined to job subsidies alone. Participation in trainee replacement makes no difference to deputies' subsequent labour market outcomes. Individuals joining any of the remaining programmes later display either the same (workplace introduction) or lower employment rates coupled with a higher benefit collection probability than if they had searched further as openly unemployed. A likely factor behind these disappointing results is the use of such types of programmes simply as a way to re-qualify for unemployment benefits. As to the pair-wise comparison of the six programmes, the central finding is again that the more similar a programme is to a regular job, the higher the programme's benefits to its participants, with employment subsidies by far the best performer, followed by trainee replacement. Several macroeconomic studies have however documented large and negative displacement and dead-weight effects for exactly these types of programme, which highlights the difficult trade-off faced by labour market policy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Who returns to work and why?: a six-country study on work incapacity and reintegration (2001)
Bloch, Frank S.; Prins, Rienk;Zitatform
Bloch, Frank S. & Rienk Prins (Hrsg.) (2001): Who returns to work and why? A six-country study on work incapacity and reintegration. (International social security series 05), New Brunswick u.a.: Transaction Publ., 306 S.
Abstract
"The book examines a wide range of interventions directed at work incapacity and reintegration that are used by social security institutions, health care providers and employers. Drawing on data compiled in six longitudinal studies of day-to-day practices and experiences in Denmark, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States through the International Social Security Association's Project on work incapacity and reintegration (WIR project), this volume addresses two key questions: do the various interventions (by social security and health care systems) found in different countries make a difference as to work resumption patterns: and if so, what are the best interventions?" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Taxation, welfare and the crisis of unemployment in Europe (2001)
Buti, Marco; Sestito, Paolo; Fernandez Bayon, Ricardo; Wijkander, Hans; Graafland, Johan; Blundell, Richard ; Martinez Mongay, Carlos; Bovenberg, Lans; Mooij, Ruud de; Eklöf, Matias; Roeger, Werner; Bourguignon, Francois; Salomäki, Aino; Blomquist, Sören ; Ca'Zorzi, Michele;Zitatform
Buti, Marco, Paolo Sestito & Hans Wijkander (Hrsg.) (2001): Taxation, welfare and the crisis of unemployment in Europe. Cheltenham u.a.: Elgar, 300 S.
Abstract
Die Beiträge des Buches analysieren die Auswirkungen der europäischen Steuer- und Wohlfahrtssysteme auf den Anreiz, Arbeitsplätze zu schaffen und Arbeit aufzunehmen.
Inhalt:
Bourguignon: Redistribution and labour-supply incentives;
Martínez Mongay/ Fernández Bayón: Effective taxation, spending and employement performance;
Salomäki: Net replacement rates of the unemployed : comparison of various approaches;
Sestito/ Ca'Zorzi: The retreat of welfare system : myths and reality. A broad comparison of trends of social protection expenditure across EU countries;
Blundell: Evaluating the labour supply responses to 'in-work' benefit reforms for low income workers;
Blomquist/ Eklöf: Tax reform and labour supply in Sweden : were low and high skill individuals affected differently?;
Bovenberg/ Graafland/ de Mooij: The Dutch employment miracle and fiscal challenges of the twenty-first century;
Wijkander/ Roeger:Skill-biased technical change, sectoral heterogeneity and wage setting: unemployment or wage inequality (IAB) -
Literaturhinweis
Public or private job matching for immigrant workers: an outline of a Swedish social experiment (2001)
Zitatform
Carling, Kenneth, Helge Bennmarker & Anders Forslund (2001): Public or private job matching for immigrant workers. An outline of a Swedish social experiment. (Office of Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2001/10), Uppsala, 15 S.
Abstract
"Evaluations of labour market programs and other related measures typically make use of observational data. This paper presents an outline for producing experimental data in the interest of testing a proposed measure targeted to unemployed immigrant workers. The idea is to offer them placement services provided by a private recruitment company as well as by public employment offices. The assignment of unemployed immigrants to the two providers will be random and the operating conditions kept as similar as possible." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The relative efficiency of labor market programs: Swedish experience from the 1990's (2001)
Carling, Kenneth; Richardson, Katarina;Zitatform
Carling, Kenneth & Katarina Richardson (2001): The relative efficiency of labor market programs. Swedish experience from the 1990's. (Office of Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2001/02), Uppsala, 37 S.
Abstract
"This paper estimates the relative efficiency of eight Swedish labor market programs in reducing the employment duration for participants. The analyses uses a hazard regression model and a uniquely large and rich administrative data set that contains all adult workers who became unemployed during 1995-1997. We find that programs in which the participants obtain subsidized work experience and training provided by firms, have better outcome than classroom vocational training. The relative efficiency is similar across demographic and skill groups and independent of the timing of the placement. A careful examination of the assignment process to programs reveals no self-selection, but substantial administrative-selection. However, the administrative-selection appears to be unrelated to the outcome and, thus, should not bias the results." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
On the efficiency of placement service and programme placement at the public employment offices in Sweden (2001)
Johannesson, Jan;Zitatform
Johannesson, Jan (2001): On the efficiency of placement service and programme placement at the public employment offices in Sweden. (Discussion papers / Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung WZB, Abteilung Arbeitsmarktpolitik und Beschäftigung 01-208), Berlin, 21 S.
Abstract
"Der Bericht ist eine Zusammenfassung von drei Studien zur Effizienz der Arbeitsvermittlung und Programmteilnahme in schwedischen Arbeitsämtern. Durch die Untersuchungsmethode 'Paarweiser Vergleich von Arbeitsämtern mit gleichen äußeren Verhältnissen' wird ein Versuch gemacht, gute Verwaltungspraxis der Arbeitsämter zu charakterisieren. In dem Bericht werden Untersuchungsmethode und Ergebnisse beschrieben und erörtert. Es zeigt sich, dass eine gute Verwaltungspraxis in hohem Maße von einer guten Infrastruktur zur Selbstbedienung für Arbeitssuchende und individualisierten Diensten für Arbeitgeber charakterisiert wird." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Labour market policy and unemployment: impact and process evaluations in selected European countries (2001)
Koning, Jaap de; Mosley, Hugh;Zitatform
(2001): Labour market policy and unemployment. Impact and process evaluations in selected European countries. (Labour markets and employment policy), Cheltenham u.a.: Elgar, 317 S.
Abstract
"This book examines the effectiveness of active labour market policies and their contribution to the prevention of long-term unemployment and social exclusion. The evalution studies reported in this volume focus on two aspects of active labour market policies that have been relatively neglected in previous research and merit special attention. The first part of the book deals with aggregate impact analysis. Using examples from France, Germany, The Netherlands and Spain, the contributors attempt to estimate the impact of active labour market policies on the transition from unemployment to employment using aggregate data at the regional level. Although quantitative in nature, these contributions take into account qualitative aspects such as the socio-economic context of the countries concerned and the structure of active labour market policies. The book then focuses on implementation issues and includes implementation studies carried out in Germany, The Netherlands and Sweden. The qualitative element plays a far more important role in these contributions which rely on case studies and surveys in addition to statistical data." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
An evaluation of the active labour market programmes in Sweden (2001)
Zitatform
Sianesi, Barbara (2001): An evaluation of the active labour market programmes in Sweden. (Office of Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2001/05), Uppsala, 98 S.
Abstract
"The low unemployment rates traditionally enjoyed by Sweden have often been attributed to the country's extensive system of active labour market programmes, which have thus often been regarded as a model for other countries to emulate. The paper investigates the presence of short- and long-term treatment effects on a number of outcomes, including employment and unemployment benefit collection. Special attention is devoted to subsequent outcomes experienced by former participants, in particular to their job attachment and their performance should they fall back into unemployment. Finally, the distinctive feature of the Swedish labour market policy, whereby participation in programmes renews eligibility to generous unemployment compensation, is investigated in relation to the incentives it is likely to create to keep cycling between compensated unemployment spells and programme participation. The approach used is propensity score matching, with some additional analyses trying to account for a partially unobserved outcome variable due to misclassification problems in the data. Joining a programme as opposed to waiting longer in open unemployment appears on average to have a positive dynamic effect on participants' employment rates. The overall findings indicate however that the human capital-enhancing component of the programmes may not always be strong enough to outcompete the work disincentives provided by the system. Furthermore, even when cycling has been ruled out by focusing on individuals observed to exit their unemployment spell, programmes are found to have no effect on any of the outcomes considered." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Mikroökonometrische Evaluierung berufsbezogener Rehabilitation in Schweden (2000)
Zitatform
Frölich, Markus, Almas Heshmati & Michael Lechner (2000): Mikroökonometrische Evaluierung berufsbezogener Rehabilitation in Schweden. In: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Volkswirtschaft und Statistik, Jg. 136, H. 3, S. 433-461.
Abstract
"In dieser Evaluierungsstudie werden simultan die kausalen Effekte verschiedener Rehabilitationsmassnahmen auf die Wiedereingliederungsschancen in den Arbeitsmarkt geschätzt. Verwendet wird ein nichtparametrisches Matching-Verfahren zur Evaluierung multipler Programme. Die Untersuchung basiert auf einer Stichprobe von 6287 Langzeiterkrankten in Westschweden in den Jahren 1991 bis 1994. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einerseits, dass die Teilnahme an Rehabilitationsmassnahmen die registrierte Krankheitsdauer verlängert. Andererseits konnten keine positiven Wiedereingliederungseffekte rehabilitierender Massnahmen im Vergleich zur Nichtteilnahme gefunden werden. Unter den Rehabilitationsmassnahmen erscheint die berufsbezogene Arbeitsplatzrehabilitation am erfolgreichsten, während berufsbezogene Bildungsmassnahmen die Wiedereingliederungschancen in den Arbeitsmarkt deutlich reduzieren." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Evaluation of Swedish youth labour market programmes (2000)
Zitatform
Larsson, Laura (2000): Evaluation of Swedish youth labour market programmes. (Office of Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2000/01), Uppsala, 71 S.
Abstract
Der Bericht bewertet und vergleicht direkte Auswirkungen zweier schwedischer Arbeitsmarktprogramme für Jugendliche (Praxis für Jugendliche, Arbeitsmarkttraining). Die Wirksamkeit wird an anschließendem Jahreseinkommen, Wahrscheinlichkeit der (Wieder-)Beschäftigung und Wahrscheinlichkeit einer normalen Schul- /Ausbildungslaufbahn gemessen. (IAB)
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Literaturhinweis
Decentralisation of active labour market policy: the case of Swedish local employment service committees (2000)
Zitatform
Lundin, Martin & Per Skedinger (2000): Decentralisation of active labour market policy. The case of Swedish local employment service committees. (Office of Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2000/06), Uppsala, 41 S.
Abstract
"Decentralisation of decision-making in active labour market policy makes it possible to use local information to the fullest, but may also impinge on the fulfilment of national objectives, as suggested by principal-agent theory. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of a Swedish pilot programme in 1996, which strengthened the role of the local authorities in labour market policy in parts of the country. Survey evidence suggests a non-negligible divergence between the objectives of the municipality representatives and the central government's goals. Regarding programme effects, our econometric findings do not indicate any increase in geographical lock-in of the unemployed, but decentralisation seems to spur local initiatives in the form of labour market programmes organised by the municipalities. In addition, targeting on outsiders is to some extent more common in municipal projects than in others." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Wirkungen aktiver Arbeitsmarktpolitik: Evaluationsergebnisse für Deutschland, Schweden, Dänemark und die Niederlande (2000)
Rabe, Brigitta;Zitatform
Rabe, Brigitta (2000): Wirkungen aktiver Arbeitsmarktpolitik. Evaluationsergebnisse für Deutschland, Schweden, Dänemark und die Niederlande. (Discussion papers / Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung WZB, Abteilung Arbeitsmarktpolitik und Beschäftigung 00-208), Berlin, 71 S.
Abstract
"Hohe Teilnehmerzahlen sowie ein beträchtlicher Mitteleinsatz für arbeitsmarktpolitische Maßnahmen haben in den letzten Jahren zu einem gesteigerten Interesse an den Wirkungen aktiver Arbeitsmarktpolitik geführt. In dieser Literaturstudie wird daher danach gefragt, was sich nach dem aktuellen Stand der Evaluierungsforschung über die bisherige Wirksamkeit aktiver Arbeitsmarktpolitik in Deutschland sagen lässt. Welche Instrumente funktionieren für welche Personengruppen und welche Maßnahmengestaltung ist zu bevorzugen? Welche makroökonomischen Effekte hat die aktive Arbeitsmarktpolitik? Welche Erkenntnisse sind gesichert und welche Fragen lassen sich noch nicht beantworten? Auch die Erfahrungen in Schweden, Dänemark und den Niederlanden werden hinzugezogen, um gegebenenfalls nachahmenswerte Modelle beim Einsatz aktiver Arbeitsmarktpolitik zu identifizieren. Bei ebenfalls hohen Ausgaben für aktive Arbeitsmarktpolitik waren zumindest Dänemark und die Niederlande in den vergangenen Jahren beschäftigungspolitisch weit erfolgreicher als Deutschland. Allerdings war dafür neben der aktiven Arbeitsmarktpolitik eine jeweils spezifische Kombination u.a. aus arbeitsrechtlicher Regulierung, Tarifpolitik sowie ökonomischer Rahmenbedingungen verantwortlich, so dass sich ein Erfolgsmodell nicht ohne weiteres kopieren lässt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
Aspekt auswählen:
Aspekt zurücksetzen
- Grundlagenbeiträge
- Methoden und Datensatzbeschreibungen
-
Typologie der Maßnahmen
- Institutionen der Arbeitsförderung
-
Vermittlung und Beratung
- Prozessoptimierung
- Profiling und Case Management, Eingliederungsvereinbarung
- Unterstützung bei der Arbeitsuche
- Vermittlung durch Dritte
- Vermittlung von Beziehern von Bürgergeld, Sozialhilfe oder Arbeitslosengeld II
- Zusammenarbeit von Arbeits- und Sozialverwaltung
- Job-Center
- Personal-Service-Agentur
- Zeitarbeit
- (gemeinnützige) Arbeitnehmerüberlassung
- Vermittlungsgutscheine
- Berufsberatung
- Aus- und Weiterbildung
- Subventionierung von Beschäftigung
- Öffentlich geförderte Beschäftigung
- Transfer- und Mobilitätsmaßnahmen
- berufliche Rehabilitation
- Lohnersatzleistungen / Einkommensunterstützung
- Altersteilzeit und Vorruhestand
- Sonstiges
- Typologie der Arbeitslosen
- besondere Personengruppen
- Geschlecht
- Geografischer Bezug
- Alter