Arbeitszeit: Verlängern? Verkürzen? Flexibilisieren?
Verkürzung, Verlängerung oder Flexibilisierung der Arbeitszeit stehen immer wieder im Zentrum der Debatten. Was wünschen sich Unternehmen und Beschäftigte? Wie kann Arbeitszeitpolitik die Schaffung neuer Arbeitsplätze und die Sicherung vorhandener Arbeitsplätze unterstützen?
Dieses Themendossier bietet Publikationen zur Entwicklung der Arbeitszeiten in Deutschland auch im internationalen Vergleich, zur betrieblichen Gestaltung der Arbeitszeit und zu den Arbeitszeitwünschen der Beschäftigten.
Publikationen zur kontroversen Debatte um die Einführung der Vier-Tage-Woche finden Sie in unserem Themendossier Vier-Tage-Woche – Arbeitszeitmodell der Zukunft?
Im Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
- Arbeitszeitpolitik
- Arbeitszeitentwicklung
- Arbeitszeit aus Sicht der Beschäftigten
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Arbeitszeitgestaltung
- gleitende Arbeitszeit
- Vertrauensarbeitszeit
- Arbeitszeitkonten
- Schichtmodelle, Wochenendarbeit
- Langzeiturlaub, Blockfreizeit
- Arbeit auf Abruf, KAPOVAZ
- Bereitschaftsdienst
- Job Sharing, Teilzeit, Altersteilzeit
- Telearbeit
- Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Kinderbetreuung, Elternzeit
- Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Pflege
- Alter
- Geschlecht
- geografischer Bezug
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Literaturhinweis
On-call job, on-call family: the necessity of family support among retail workers with unstable work schedules (2016)
Zitatform
Carrillo, Dani, Kristen Harknett, Allison Logan, Sigrid Luhr & Daniel Schneider (2016): On-call job, on-call family. The necessity of family support among retail workers with unstable work schedules. (Washington Center for Equitable Growth. Working paper 2016-11), Washington, DC, 39 S.
Abstract
"Drawing on 25 in-depth interviews with parents employed in the service sector in the San Francisco Bay area, we describe an array of challenges: insufficient work hours, volatile incomes, unpredictable schedules, and the lack of flexibility for time off. Meeting the demands of work and parenting almost invariably involved reliance on informal child care support. Working parents with stable schedules were often able to manage parenting responsibilities using a 'tag-team' parenting approach. Those with unstable schedules often engaged in a 'child-care scramble' in which the care arrangements were pieced together on an ad hoc basis. Some parents with unstable work schedules were able to avoid this instability by relying heavily on one 'family anchor,' usually a grandparent, who could consistently provide child care. In sum, on-call family support is required to meet the demands of unstable work schedules, and instability in work schedules often reproduces a similar instability at home." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Women working longer: facts and some explanations (2016)
Zitatform
Goldin, Claudia & Lawrence F. Katz (2016): Women working longer. Facts and some explanations. (NBER working paper 22607), Cambrige, Mass., 59 S. DOI:10.3386/w22607
Abstract
"American women are working more, through their sixties and even into their seventies. Their increased participation at older ages started in the late 1980s before the turnaround in older men's labor force participation and the economic downturns of the 2000s. The higher labor force participation of older women consists disproportionately of those working at full-time jobs. Increased labor force participation of women in their older ages is part of the general increase in cohort labor force participation. Cohort effects, in turn, are mainly a function of educational advances and greater prior work experience. But labor force participation rates of the most recent cohorts in their forties are less than those for previous cohorts. It would appear that employment at older ages could stagnate or even decrease. But several other factors will be operating in an opposing direction leading us to conclude that women are likely to continue to work even longer." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Valuing alternative work arrangements (2016)
Zitatform
Mas, Alexandre & Amanda Pallais (2016): Valuing alternative work arrangements. (NBER working paper 22708), Cambrige, Mass., 61 S. DOI:10.3386/w22708
Abstract
"We use a field experiment to study how workers value alternative work arrangements. During the application process to staff a national call centre, we randomly offered applicants choices between traditional M-F 9 am - 5 pm office positions and alternatives. These alternatives include flexible scheduling, working from home, and positions that give the employer discretion over scheduling. We randomly varied the wage difference between the traditional option and the alternative, allowing us to estimate the entire distribution of willingness to pay (WTP) for these alternatives. We validate our results using a nationally-representative survey. The great majority of workers are not willing to pay for flexible scheduling relative to a traditional schedule: either the ability to choose the days and times of work or the number of hours they work. However, the average worker is willing to give up 20% of wages to avoid a schedule set by an employer on a week's notice. This largely represents workers' aversion to evening and weekend work, not scheduling unpredictability. Traditional M-F 9 am - 5 pm schedules are preferred by most jobseekers. Despite the fact that the average worker isn't willing to pay for scheduling flexibility, a tail of workers with high WTP allows for sizable compensating differentials. Of the worker-friendly options we test, workers are willing to pay the most (8% of wages) for the option of working from home. Women, particularly those with young children, have higher WTP for work from home and to avoid employer scheduling discretion. They are slightly more likely to be in jobs with these amenities, but the differences are not large enough to explain any wage gaps." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Women's wage theft: explaining gender differences in violations of wage and hour laws (2016)
Zitatform
Petrescu-Prahova, Miruna & Michael W. Spiller (2016): Women's wage theft. Explaining gender differences in violations of wage and hour laws. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 43, H. 4, S. 371-400. DOI:10.1177/0730888416661019
Abstract
"In this study, the authors identify and analyze a distinct and understudied source of gender inequality: gender differences in violations of wage-related workplace laws. The authors find that women have significantly higher rates of minimum wage and overtime violations than men and also lose more of their earnings to wage theft than men. In the case of minimum wage violations, the authors also find that nativity and immigration status strongly mediate this gender difference. Multivariate analysis suggests that demand-side characteristics - occupation and measures of nonstandard work and informality - account for more of the gender difference in minimum wage violations than do worker characteristics." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Successes in changing flexible work arrangement use: managers and work-unit variation in a financial services organization (2016)
Zitatform
Sweet, Stephen, Marcie Pitt-Catsouphes & Jacquelyn Boone James (2016): Successes in changing flexible work arrangement use. Managers and work-unit variation in a financial services organization. In: Work and occupations, Jg. 43, H. 1, S. 75-109. DOI:10.1177/0730888415595094
Abstract
"This study identifies factors associated with flexible work arrangement (FWA) use in the context of the 'Supervisor-Promoted Flexibility' program implemented by an employer in the financial activities supersector. This change initiative involved supervisor-initiated discussions that explored prospects for supervisee FWA use. Discussions increased the odds of FWA use expansion, but changes occurred at different rates among work units. Managers' gender, age, and attitudes toward FWAs corresponded with changes observed. When managers believed that supervisee FWA use reflected favorably on prospects for their own careers, they were more likely to expand use over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Out of time: the consequences of non-standard employment schedules for family cohesion (2016)
Zitatform
Täht, Kadri & Melinda Mills (2016): Out of time. The consequences of non-standard employment schedules for family cohesion. (SpringerBriefs in sociology), Springer London 126 S. DOI:10.1007/978-94-017-7402-4
Abstract
"This pioneering work aims at understanding the impact of non-standard (evening, night, weekend) working time on family cohesion, meaning parent-child interaction, partnership quality and divorce or partnership dissolution. 'Out of time - the Consequences of Non-standard Employment Schedules for Family Cohesion' is the first work to treat this important topic in a cross-national, comparative way by using data from two large comparable surveys. The impact of work in non-standard schedules on workers can be divided into individual and social consequences. Research so far has shown the clear individual effects of these schedules, such as increased stress levels and sleeping and physical disorders. There is less clarity about social consequences. Either no or positive effects of these types of schedules on workers and their families are found, or a significant negative impact on the relations between the workers and others, especially other members of the family is shown in research results. This Brief compares the Netherlands and the United States of America, countries that both show a high prevalence of non-standard schedule work, whereas both operate in very different institutional and welfare regime settings of working time regulation. By combining both quantitative and qualitative data, the authors are able to provide generalized views of comparative surveys and challenging those generalizations at the same time, thus enabling the reader to get a better understanding and more balanced view of the actual relationship between non-standard employment schedules and family cohesion." (Publisher's text, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Marriage stability, taxation and aggregate labor supply in the U.S. vs. Europe (2015)
Zitatform
Chakraborty, Indraneel, Hans A. Holter & Serhiy Stepanchuk (2015): Marriage stability, taxation and aggregate labor supply in the U.S. vs. Europe. In: Journal of monetary economics, Jg. 72, H. May, S. 1-20. DOI:10.1016/j.jmoneco.2015.01.001
Abstract
"Americans work more than Europeans. Using micro-data from the United States and 17 European countries, we document that women are typically the largest contributors to the cross-country differences in work hours. We also show that there is a negative relation between taxes and annual hours worked, driven by men, and a positive relation between divorce rates and annual hours worked, driven by women. In a calibrated life-cycle model with heterogeneous agents, marriage and divorce, we find that the divorce and tax mechanisms together can explain 45% of the variation in labor supply between the United States and the European countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
FLSA working hours reform: worker well-being effects in an economic framework (2015)
Golden, Lonnie;Zitatform
Golden, Lonnie (2015): FLSA working hours reform. Worker well-being effects in an economic framework. In: Industrial relations, Jg. 54, H. 4, S. 717-749. DOI:10.1111/irel.12111
Abstract
"This article discusses a model developed to predict the effects of recently proposed amendments to the FLSA workweek and overtime provisions. The model contrasts allowing compensatory time for overtime pay for private nonexempt employees to 'rights to request' reduced hours. Hours demanded are likely to rise for workers who request comp time, undermining the intention of family-friendliness and alleviating overemployment, unless accompanied by offsetting policies that would prevent the denied use or forced use of comp time and that resurrect some monetary deterrent effect. A unique survey shows that the preference for time over money and comp time is relatively more prevalent among exempt, long hours and women workers; thus, worker welfare is likely better served if comp time were incorporated into an individualized, employee-initiated right to request." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Correlates of flexible working arrangements, stress, and sleep difficulties in the US workforce: does the flexibility of the flexibility matter? (2015)
Zitatform
Haley, M. Ryan & Laurie A. Miller (2015): Correlates of flexible working arrangements, stress, and sleep difficulties in the US workforce. Does the flexibility of the flexibility matter? In: Empirical economics, Jg. 48, H. 4, S. 1395-1418. DOI:10.1007/s00181-014-0836-4
Abstract
"Using the 2008 National Study of the Changing Workforce, we study how two forms of flextime correlate with family stress, workplace stress, and sleep difficulties. The first flextime measure is the ability to easily take time off for personal and family matters, which correlates with a statistically and economically significant reduction in workplace stress. Subsequently, we find that this same flexibility is associated with 6 - 10% reduction in the likelihood of self-reported sleep difficulties for the full sample, and as high as an 11 - 25% reduction in a subgroup analysis concerning unmarried females with children. The second flextime measure is the option of a compressed workweek, which also correlates with a statistically reduction in workplace stress, though the estimate is considerably smaller than for the first flexibility; a subsequent analysis finds no statistically significant relationship between this flexibility and sleep difficulties. Our findings suggest that the more flexible flexibility (i.e., more short-notice schedule flexibility) appears to be associated with larger reductions in the probability of being stressed, enough, in fact, to carry through to noticeable improvements in concomitant sleep difficulties. Thus, the first form of flextime may function, based on this observational analysis, as a tangible non-medical way to meet worker flextime desires and firm aspirations for increased safety and less absenteeism, all while potentially offering a positive public health externality. The size and significance of the flextime results prevail through bias assessments and sensitivity analyses." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Why do Europeans work less than Americans?: public consumption and welfare benefits as a cause of the north-atlantic divide (2015)
Zitatform
Hall, Axel & Gylfi Zoega (2015): Why do Europeans work less than Americans? Public consumption and welfare benefits as a cause of the north-atlantic divide. (CESifo working paper 5264), München, 26 S.
Abstract
"We propose an explanation of why Europeans choose to work fewer hours than Americans and also suffer higher rates of unemployment. Labor market regulations, unemployment benefits, and high levels of public consumption in many European countries reduce, ceteris paribus, the gains from being employed, which makes employed workers ask for higher wages relative to productivity. The higher wages make firms offer fewer vacancies, as well as raising the opportunity cost of working by enabling employed workers to enjoy time-consuming consumption activities. We find empirical support for our thesis." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Long workweeks and strange hours (2015)
Zitatform
Hamermesh, Daniel S. & Elena Stancanelli (2015): Long workweeks and strange hours. In: ILR review, Jg. 68, H. 5, S. 1007-1018. DOI:10.1177/0019793915592375
Abstract
"U.S. workweeks are long compared to workweeks in other rich countries. Much less well-known is that Americans are more likely to work at night and on weekends. The authors examine the relationship between these two phenomena using the American Time Use Survey and time-diary data from France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Only small portions of the U.S. - European differences are attributable to observable characteristics. Adjusting for demographic and occupational differences, Americans' incidence of night and weekend work would drop by no more than 10% if the average European workweek prevailed. Even if no Americans worked long hours, the incidence of unusual work times in the United States would far exceed those in continental Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Hours, scheduling and flexibility for women in the US low-wage labour force (2015)
Zitatform
Jacobs, Anna W. & Irene Padavic (2015): Hours, scheduling and flexibility for women in the US low-wage labour force. In: Gender, Work and Organization, Jg. 22, H. 1, S. 67-86. DOI:10.1111/gwao.12069
Abstract
"Research on women's experiences with work schedules and flexibility tends to focus on professional women in high-paying careers, despite women's far greater prevalence in low-wage jobs. This paper seeks to contribute to our understanding of the work-hours problems faced by women precariously employed in low-wage jobs by addressing how work-on-demand scheduling and other features of part-time labour in the neoliberal economy limit women's ability to make ends meet. Using data from 17 in-depth interviews, we identify four themes -- unpredictable schedules, inadequate hours, time theft and punishment-and-control via hours-reduction -- and the problems they present. Results suggest that much-championed flexible work policies that seek to encourage women's career advancement may have little bearing on the work-hours dilemmas faced by low-wage women workers. We conclude that social change efforts need to encompass work policies geared to low-wage workers, such as guaranteed minimum hours and increases in the minimum wage." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The gender gap in employment hours: do work-hour regulations matter? (2015)
Zitatform
Landivar, Liana Christin (2015): The gender gap in employment hours. Do work-hour regulations matter? In: Work, employment and society, Jg. 29, H. 4, S. 550-570. DOI:10.1177/0950017014568139
Abstract
"In all developed countries, women, especially mothers, work fewer paid hours than their spouses. However, the magnitude of the gender gap varies significantly by country, ranging from 2 to 20 hours per week in this study. Using data from the 2002 International Social Survey Programme, this article investigates whether work-hour regulations have a significant effect on household allocation of paid labour and gender work-hour inequality. Two main types of work-hour regulations are examined: standard weekly work hours and the maximum allowable weekly work hours. Results show that households in countries with shorter maximum weekly work hours had less work-hour inequality between spouses, as each additional allowable overtime hour over the standard working week increased the work-hour gap between couples by 20 minutes. These results indicate that couples' inequality in work hours and gender inequality in labour supply are associated with country-level work-hour regulations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Working-time configurations: a framework for analyszing diversity across countries (2014)
Zitatform
Berg, Peter, Gerhard Bosch & Jean Charest (2014): Working-time configurations: a framework for analyszing diversity across countries. In: ILR review, Jg. 67, H. 3, S. 805-837. DOI:10.1177/0019793914537452
Abstract
"In this introductory article, we examine working time through the lens of the employment relationship and the interests of various actors. We discuss how the decline in the old standard working-time model has opened the door to greater diversity in working time. As the demands of employers and employees encourage new working-time practices, we find the responses to these demands differ substantially across countries. These differences reflect variations in labor market institutions and diverse power relations between labor and management." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The impact of hours flexibility on career employment, bridge jobs, and the timing of retirement (2014)
Zitatform
Cahill, Kevin E., Michael D. Giandrea & Joseph F. Quinn (2014): The impact of hours flexibility on career employment, bridge jobs, and the timing of retirement. (BLS working paper 472), Washington, DC, 38 S.
Abstract
"To what extent does hours flexibility in career employment impact the retirement process? Workplace flexibility policies have the potential to improve both the welfare of employees and the business outcomes of employers. These policies, and hours flexibility in particular for older Americans, have also been touted as a way to reduce turnover. For older Americans, reductions in turnover could mean more years in career employment, fewer years in bridge employment, and little or no impact on the timing of retirement. Alternatively, hours flexibility in career employment could lead to longer working lives and delayed retirements. The distinction between the two outcomes is important if hours flexibility policies, such as phased retirement, are to be considered an option for alleviating the strains of an aging society. This paper describes how hours flexibility in career employment impacts the retirement patterns of older Americans. We use data on three cohorts of older Americans from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a large nationally-representative dataset that began in 1992. We explore the extent to which hours flexibility arrangements are available and utilized in career employment and explore the extent to which such arrangements impact job transitions later in life. We find that bridge job prevalence is higher among those with access to hours flexibility in career employment compared to those without hours flexibility. Further, while we find mixed evidence that hours flexibility extends time in career employment, we do find that hours flexibility in career employment is associated with longer tenure on bridge jobs. Taken together these results suggest that hours flexibility in career employment is associated with extended work lives, particularly in post-career employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Class advantage and the gender divide: flexibility on the job and at home (2014)
Gerstel, Naomi; Clawson, Dan;Zitatform
Gerstel, Naomi & Dan Clawson (2014): Class advantage and the gender divide. Flexibility on the job and at home. In: American Journal of Sociology, Jg. 120, H. 2, S. 395-431. DOI:10.1086/678270
Abstract
"Using a survey, interviews, and observations, the authors examine inequality in temporal flexibility at home and at work. They focus on four occupations to show that class advantage is deployed in the service of gendered notions of temporal flexibility while class disadvantage makes it difficult to obtain such flexibility. The class advantage of female nurses and male doctors enables them to obtain flexibility in their work hours; they use that flexibility in gendered ways: nurses to prioritize family and physicians to prioritize careers. Female nursing assistants and male emergency medical technicians can obtain little employee-based flexibility and, as a result, have more difficulty meeting conventional gendered expectations. Advantaged occupations 'do gender' in conventional ways while disadvantaged occupations 'undo gender.' These processes operate through organizational rules and cultural schemas that sustain one another but may undermine the gender and class neutrality of family-friendly policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Long workweeks and strange hours (2014)
Zitatform
Hamermesh, Daniel S. & Elena Stancanelli (2014): Long workweeks and strange hours. (NBER working paper 20449), Cambridge, Mass., 14 S. DOI:10.3386/w20449
Abstract
"American workweeks are long compared to other rich countries'. Much less well-known is that Americans are more likely to work at night and on weekends. We examine the relationship between these two phenomena using the American Time Use Survey and time-diary data from 5 other countries. Adjusting for demographic differences, Americans' incidence of night and weekend work would drop by about 10 percent if European workweeks prevailed. Even if no Americans worked long hours, the incidence of unusual work times in the U.S. would far exceed those in continental Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Unpredictable work timing in retail jobs: implications for employee work-life conflict (2014)
Zitatform
Henly, Julia R. & Susan J. Lambert (2014): Unpredictable work timing in retail jobs. Implications for employee work-life conflict. In: ILR review, Jg. 67, H. 3, S. 986-1016. DOI:10.1177/0019793914537458
Abstract
"Unpredictability is a distinctive dimension of working time that has been examined primarily in the context of unplanned overtime and in male-dominated occupations. The authors assess the extent to which female employees in low-skilled retail jobs whose work schedules are unpredictable report greater work -- life conflict than do their counterparts with more predictable work schedules and whether employee input into work schedules reduces work -- life conflict. Data include measures from employee surveys and firm records for a sample of hourly female workers employed across 21 stores of a U.S. women's apparel retailer. Results demonstrate that, independent of other dimensions of nonstandard work hours, unpredictability is positively associated with three outcomes: general work -- life conflict, time-based conflict, and strain-based conflict as measured by perceived employee stress. Employee input into work schedules is negatively related to these outcomes. Little evidence was found that schedule input moderates the association between unpredictable working time and work -- life conflict." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Changing work and work-family conflict: evidence from the work, family, and health network (2014)
Kelly, Erin L. ; Mierzwa, Frank; Kossek, Ellen Ernst ; King, Rosalind Berkowitz; Casperi, Lynne M.; Hanson, Ginger C.; Moen, Phyllis ; Okechukwu, Cassandra; Davis, Kelly D.; Hammer, Leslie B. ; Fan, Wen ; Oakes, J. Michael;Zitatform
Kelly, Erin L., Phyllis Moen, J. Michael Oakes, Wen Fan, Cassandra Okechukwu, Kelly D. Davis, Leslie B. Hammer, Ellen Ernst Kossek, Rosalind Berkowitz King, Ginger C. Hanson, Frank Mierzwa & Lynne M. Casperi (2014): Changing work and work-family conflict. Evidence from the work, family, and health network. In: American Sociological Review, Jg. 79, H. 3, S. 485-516. DOI:10.1177/0003122414531435
Abstract
"Schedule control and supervisor support for family and personal life may help employees manage the work-family interface. Existing data and research designs, however, have made it difficult to conclusively identify the effects of these work resources. This analysis utilizes a group-randomized trial in which some units in an information technology workplace were randomly assigned to participate in an initiative, called STAR, that targeted work practices, interactions, and expectations by (1) training supervisors on the value of demonstrating support for employees' personal lives and (2) prompting employees to reconsider when and where they work. We find statistically significant, although modest, improvements in employees' work-family conflict and family time adequacy, and larger changes in schedule control and supervisor support for family and personal life. We find no evidence that this intervention increased work hours or perceived job demands, as might have happened with increased permeability of work across time and space. Subgroup analyses suggest the intervention brought greater benefits to employees more vulnerable to work-family conflict. This study uses a rigorous design to investigate deliberate organizational changes and their effects on work resources and the work-family interface, advancing our understanding of the impact of social structures on individual lives." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
A research note on the relationship between long working hours and weight gain for older workers in the United States (2014)
Mercan, Murat Anil;Zitatform
Mercan, Murat Anil (2014): A research note on the relationship between long working hours and weight gain for older workers in the United States. In: Research on Aging, Jg. 36, H. 5, S. 557-567. DOI:10.1177/0164027513510324
Abstract
"Working long hours may be related to obesity in older adults. No studies have focused on older workers and long work hours, although the risk of obesity is high among this population group. This study is the first attempt to investigate the relationship between obesity and the older workforce. Panel data from the Health and Retirement Study are examined using Cox regression techniques. We found that older workers who work more than 59 hr a week are more likely to gain weight than older workers who work less than 59 hr per week." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Aspekt zurücksetzen
- Arbeitszeitpolitik
- Arbeitszeitentwicklung
- Arbeitszeit aus Sicht der Beschäftigten
-
Arbeitszeitgestaltung
- gleitende Arbeitszeit
- Vertrauensarbeitszeit
- Arbeitszeitkonten
- Schichtmodelle, Wochenendarbeit
- Langzeiturlaub, Blockfreizeit
- Arbeit auf Abruf, KAPOVAZ
- Bereitschaftsdienst
- Job Sharing, Teilzeit, Altersteilzeit
- Telearbeit
- Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Kinderbetreuung, Elternzeit
- Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Pflege
- Alter
- Geschlecht
- geografischer Bezug