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Azzollini, Leo, Richard Breen & Brian Nolan (2023): From gender equality to household earnings equality: The role of women’s labour market outcomes across OECD countries. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 86. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2023.100823

Abstract

"We assess the impact that full gender equality in the labour market would have on earnings inequality between households, and then decompose that impact by looking separately at the roles played by gender gaps in employment, hours, and pay. We do this by applying a reweighting method to LIS data for 22 OECD countries, across North America, Europe, and Australia. We find that full equality in earnings and employment between women and men would reduce household earnings inequality considerably, with the most substantial reductions coming from closing the gender gap in employment as opposed to closing the gaps in pay and hours worked. A 10% counterfactual decrease in the gender employment gap (relative to the country baseline) is associated with an average 0.6% decline in the Gini for household earnings inequality. Reducing the gender employment gap is thus the pathway through which greater gender equality may most strongly mitigate overall earnings inequality among households: these two key goals for contemporary societies can be pursued simultaneously." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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Berloffa, Gabriella, Eleonora Matteazzi, Alina Şandor & Paola Villa (2023): Mothers' and daughters' employment in Europe. A comparative analysis. In: Socio-economic review, Jg. 21, H. 2, S. 767-793. DOI:10.1093/ser/mwac046

Abstract

"This article analyzes the intergenerational correlation of employment between young women (at about 30 years of age) and their mothers (when their daughters were about 14 years old), using 2011 European Union Survey on Income and Living Conditions data. It examines the extent to which this correlation varies across 19 European countries and is associated with the socioeconomic context at the national level. Having grown up with a working mother is associated with a sizeable increase in the daughters’ employment probability in almost all countries, with greater effect for women with children. For this group, the intergenerational correlation is smaller in countries where the policy context is less favorable to maternal employment. It is crucial to promote gender equality, challenging individuals’ gender stereotypes through education and in society at large, and create conditions that allow young women’s preferences for work to be realized, enhancing policies that favor a balanced sharing of unpaid work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bonsang, Eric & Joan Costa-Font (2023): The "Demise of the Caregiving Daughter"? Gender Employment Gaps and the Use of Formal and Informal Care in Europe. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 16615), Bonn, 51 S.

Abstract

"We revisit the universality of the "caregiving daughter effect", which holds that daughters tend to provide more care to their older parents than sons. Based on rich European data, we document evidence of such an effect in countries with large gender disparities in employment rates, where having daughters also depresses the demand for formal care. In contrast, we find evidence consistent with the "demise of the caregiving daughter" when exposed to narrower gender gaps, where there is no more daughters' effect on formal care. These results point to a reconsideration of caregiving system design amidst the rise of female employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bratti, Massimiliano (2023): Fertility postponement and labor market outcomes. Postponed childbearing improves women's labor market outcomes but may reduce overall fertility. (IZA world of labor 117), Bonn, 11 S. DOI:10.15185/izawol.117.v2

Abstract

"Die zeitliche Verlagerung der Mutterschaft kann sich für Frauen ökonomisch positiv auswirken, indem sie vor der Geburt ihr Humankapital vergrößern, ihre Erwerbsbeteiligung intensivieren und ihr Einkommen steigern können. Umgekehrt kann dies die Realisierung von (weiteren) Kinderwünschen verhindern. Empirisch lässt sich zeigen, dass eine Verschiebung der Mutterschaft Arbeitsmarktnähe und Lohnniveau deutlich erhöht, zugleich aber weniger Kinder zu haben wahrscheinlicher macht. Hier sollte die Familienpolitik ansetzen: durch öffentliche Kinderbetreuungsangebote, finanzielle Anreize für Firmen, die betriebliche Angebote schaffen, sowie durch Elternzeitprogramme, die die Kinderbetreuungsaufgaben gerechter auf Väter und Mütter verteilen. Facebook Twitter" (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Fırat, Mustafa, Mark Visserm & Gerbert Kraaykamp (2023): Work-Family Trajectories Across Europe. Differences Between Social Groups and Welfare Regimes. (SocArXiv papers), 40 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/nghtq

Abstract

"Work and family trajectories develop and interact over the life course in complex ways. However, previous studies drew a fragmented picture of these trajectories and had limited scope. Here, we provide the most comprehensive study of work-family trajectories to date. Using retrospective data from wave 3 and 7 of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, we reconstructed work-family trajectories from age 15 to 49 among almost 80,000 individuals born between 1908 and 1967 across 28 countries. We applied multichannel sequence and cluster analysis to identify work-family trajectories and multinomial logistic regression models to uncover their social composition. Our results revealed six common trajectories. The dominant trajectory represents the standard path of continuous full-time employment and having a partner with children. Women, the lower educated and persons from conservative welfare regimes are underrepresented in this trajectory, whereas men, higher educated people and those from social-democratic and Eastern European welfare regimes are overrepresented. Other trajectories denote a deviation from the standard path, integrating a non-standard form of work with standard family formation or vice versa. Women who have a partner and children generally work part-time or do not work at all. When in full-time employment, women are more likely to be divorced. Lower educated persons are less likely to be full-time workers with non-standard families, yet more likely to be non-employed with standard family formation. Younger cohorts are underrepresented in non-employment but overrepresented in part-time employment with a partner and children. Individuals from Southern European regimes are more likely to be non-working partnered parents and those from social-democratic regimes are more likely to be full-time employed separated parents. We also found pronounced gender differences in how educational level, birth cohort and welfare regime areassociated withwork-family trajectories. Our findings largely highlight the socially stratified nature of work-family trajectories in Europe. We conclude by discussing the potential implications for later-life inequalities,and make our code producing the trajectory data publicly available to facilitate future research." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Giuliani, Giovanni Amerigo (2023): The gender dimension of outsiderness in Western Europe: a comparative cross-model analysis. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 43, H. 13/14, S. 62-78. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-12-2022-0317

Abstract

"Purpose: The article investigates whether and to what extent outsiderness is gendered in Western Europe, both in terms of its spread and degree. It thus explores which male and female post-Fordist social classes are more exposed to the risk of this phenomenon. It also scrutinizes whether such a gendered characterization has varied over time and across clusters of Western European countries. Design/methodology/approach Relying on a comparative analysis of the data provided by the European Social Survey (ESS) dataset and comparing two points in time –the early/mid-2000s and the late 2010s – the work provides both a dichotomous and continuous variable of outsiderness, which measure its spread and degree in the female and male workforces of a pooled set of growth models. Findings The empirical analysis shows that outsiderness is profoundly gendered in Western Europe and thus a feminized social phenomenon. However, the comparative investigation highlights that outsiderness has been genderized in diverse ways across the four growth models. Different patterns of gendered outsiderness can be identified. Originality/value The article provides a comparative and diachronic analysis of outsiderness from a gender lens, putting into a mutual dialogue different literature on labour market, and shows that outsiderness represents a key analytical dimension for assessing gender inequalities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Köppl-Turyna, Monika & Nikolaus Graf (2023): Kinderbetreuung und Vereinbarkeit im internationalen Vergleich: Update des EcoAustria Scoreboard-Indikators. (Policy note / EcoAustria - Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung 54), Wien, 21 S.

Abstract

"Die Verfügbarkeit qualitativ hochwertiger, örtlich erreichbarer, zeitlich flexibler Kinderbetreuung stellt eine Grundvoraussetzung der Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie dar. Österreich weist eine überdurchschnittliche Erwerbsbeteiligung von Müttern auf, zugleich findet diese Erwerbsbeteiligung sehr häufig in Form von Teilzeitbeschäftigung statt. Teilzeitbeschäftigung stellt wieder mit, eine Ursache für geschlechtsspezifische Ungleichheiten am Arbeitsmarkt dar. Institutionelle Kinderbetreuung kann die Arbeitsmarktteilnahme von Müttern befördern und zu einer Ausweitung der Arbeitszeit führen. Zugleich gehen von Kinderbetreuung positive Effekte auf die Bildungsergebnisse und auf die schulische Integration bildungsbenachteiligter Kinder aus. In Anbetracht der aktuellen Arbeitskräfteknappheit kann eine Ausweitung der Erwerbsintegration von Müttern eine Option darstellen, die Nachfrage nach Arbeitskräften zu decken. Kurzum: Von Kinderbetreuung gehen viele positive, gesellschaftlich und politisch erwünschte Effekte aus. Dennoch: Trotz der in der jüngeren Vergangenheit erzielten Fortschritte sind etwa bei der Betreuung von Kleinkindern unter drei Jahren und im Hinblick auf verlängerte flexible Öffnungszeiten am Tagesrand sowie Schließtage während den Ferien Aufholpotenziale insbesondere in ländlichen Regionen gegeben. [...]" (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Lee, Cheol-Sung & Taekyeong Goh (2023): Union brokerage and the gender gap in the labor market. A cross-national comparative study of associational networks and gendered labor force participation in OECD countries. In: International Journal of Comparative Sociology, Jg. 64, H. 1, S. 22-56. DOI:10.1177/00207152221108139

Abstract

"This article explores the role of union-centered brokerage in promoting women’s labor force participation in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries for the last three decades. Using two measures of brokerage, a union’s core brokerage role, and its general brokerage role, we attempted to capture the processes by which union activists mobilize and extend women’s rights in associational fields. Then, we tested our key argument that union-centered brokerage plays the most effective role among the different brokerage types in channeling women’s interests by transforming them into wider class-linked or cross-class concerns. Cross-national and comparative case studies demonstrate that union-led brokerage promotes greater presence of women in the economy. Our findings revealed that, when controlling for economic, regional, and cultural factors, both types of brokerage roles impact women’s participation in the labor market and their participation compared to that of men. The overall findings underscore the importance of creating and utilizing solidarity structures through effective channeling mechanisms in civic associational fields between labor-based organizations and other reform-oriented civic groups in achieving egalitarian socioeconomic goals." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lütolf, Meret & Isabelle Stadelmann-Steffen (2023): Do households live the family model they prefer? Household's work patterns across European policy regimes. In: Socio-economic review, Jg. 21, H. 3, S. 1421-1443. DOI:10.1093/ser/mwac023

Abstract

"Studies have investigated the equalizing effect of childcare provision and parental leave schemes on gendered work patterns. However, as the relationship between policies and individual time allocations to paid work is complex and challenging to empirically assess, previous research has clarified single aspects of this complexity. The present study theoretically and empirically combines a household perspective by considering the work behaviors of two partners within one household (i.e. a household's lived family model) with a comparative approach to systematically analyze relationships between specific policy designs and households' paid work patterns in a large sample. The findings imply that extensive childcare policies are systematically related to an egalitarian household organization, mostly among those with small children. This association can be observed across households with varying levels of egalitarian norms. Conversely, the findings suggest that the current design of parental leave policies in the 21 European countries does not allow for a true assessment of the potential of leave schemes to influence the within-household division of labor." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Picatoste, Xose, Anabela Mesquita & Fernando González-Laxe (2023): Gender wage gap, quality of earnings and gender digital divide in the European context. In: Empirica, Jg. 50, H. 2, S. 301-321. DOI:10.1007/s10663-022-09555-8

Abstract

"One of the leading national and international objectives is to achieve more egalitarian societies. Avoiding gender or digital gaps are priorities generally assumed as concerns of governments and international organizations. This paper evaluates the digital gender divide in its three stages: access, use and results, relating it to gender and salary gaps in the context of the European Union. Cluster analysis was conducted to classify the countries according to their gender digital divide. The influence of age and studies level of males and females was revised. Based on the OECD and EUROSTAT data, an empirical analysis was conducted. By comparison of means, the significant variables influencing the gender digital divide were identified, probing that the educational level significantly influences it, especially in what refers to the third stage. Finally, through a regression analysis, it was proved that the influence of the insecurity and the gender wage gap goes beyond the women and affects society." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Scherer, Stefani & Emmanuele Pavolini (2023): Equalizing or not? Public childcare and women's labour market participation. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 33, H. 4, S. 436-450. DOI:10.1177/09589287231183169

Abstract

"Within the scientific literature and debate on social investment, public childcare provision plays a pivotal role. At the same time, critics have argued that social investment is often unable to reduce social inequalities and, to the contrary, tends to reproduce them (the so-called ‘Matthew effect’). The article focuses on a specific facet of social investment policies: their capacity to support mothers’ employment and its effect on social inequality, by investigating empirically to what extent an expansion of public childcare can help to increase women’s labour market participation and how this eventual support is homogenously distributed among different mothers’ profiles. To give a convincing answer to such a question requires careful attention to methodology, in order to avoid drawing the wrong conclusions. Whereas existing research has predominately focused on cross-national variation and has often been static in nature, the present study assesses the effects of public childcare expansion on women’s labour market participation and employment by examining region-specific within-variation over time of public childcare coverage. The study relies on data from the European Social Survey (2002–2018) that were integrated with an original collection of regional-level information on public childcare. It finds a positive association between increases in public childcare coverage and mothers’ labour market participation. Furthermore, it shows that public childcare helps to fight social inequalities among households with young children. Low-educated mothers are the ones who profit most from an increase in public childcare, and positive employment effects are most pronounced at lower levels of childcare coverage. Therefore, this contribution highlights the importance of public childcare policies as an equalizer in society, especially in contexts in which an intervention is most needed, because expanding childcare fosters mothers’ labour market participation" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Seo, Hyojin (2023): Gendered labour market patterns across Europe: Does family policy mitigate feminization of outsiders? In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 33, H. 1, S. 3-16. DOI:10.1177/09589287221148916

Abstract

"Studies have shown positive impact of family policies on women’s labour market participation over the last decades. How, then, does it influence the types of jobs women obtain when they (re-)enter the labour market? Using multi-level modelling, this study examines how different work–family balance policies (that is, leave policies, childcare services) shape gendered labour market patterns and whether or not it mitigates women’s overrepresentation among the labour market Outsiders across Europe. I use European Working Conditions Survey 2015 data and cover 30 European countries. Specifically focusing on women’s relative likelihood of being labour market Outsiders compared to men, I find that certain policies help women avoid being Outsiders, while the others may reinforce the existing gender inequality in the labour market. This resonates with the welfare state paradox and family policy trade-off literature that the policies that do not disrupt the gender norms may in turn maintain or enhance them." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Zacchia, Giulia & Izaskun Zuazu (2023): The Wage Effect of Workplace Sexual Harassment: Evidence for Women in Europe. (Working papers / Institute for New Economic Thinking 205), Institute for New Economic Thinking 27 S. DOI:10.36687/inetwp205

Abstract

"This article contributes to the literature on wage discrimination by examining the consequences of sexual harassment in the workplace on wages for women in Europe. We model the empirical relationship between sexual harassment risk and wages for European women employees using individual-level data provided by the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS, Eurostat). We find that sexual harassment risk has a negative and statistically significant effect on wages of -0.03% on average for women in Europe. However, our empirical analysis uncovers the importance of considering the dynamics of workplace power relations: analyzing individual-level data, we find evidence of a higher negative impact of sexual harassment risk on wages for women working in counter-stereotypical occupations. We conclude that the wage effect of hostile working conditions, mainly in terms of sexual harassment risk in the workplace, should be considered and monitored as a first critical step in making women be less vulnerable at work and increasing their bargaining power, thereby reducing inequalities in working conditions and pay in Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2023): Quarterly Review of Employment and Social Developments in Europe (ESDE) - April 2023. (Employment and social developments in Europe : Quarterly review), Luxembourg, 25 S.

Abstract

"The thematic part of this review focuses on gender segregation in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and healthcare occupations across EU Member States. This is an important topic in the context of the upcoming European Year of Skills, because gender segregation can both limit the efficiency of matching labour supply with demand and results in suboptimal use of women’s and men’s talents. The thematic focus shows that both STEM and healthcare occupations are heavily gender segregated in nearly all Member States. It highlights that in many countries, much of the existing segregation is explained by the fact that female and male workers tend to hold qualifications in different study fields – this applies particularly in the case of STEM occupations. Finally, it demonstrates that in most Member States, desegregation offers an important opportunity to attract new workers into STEM and healthcare occupations facing shortages." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2023): International Migration Outlook 2023. (International migration outlook 47), Paris, 403 S. DOI:10.1787/b0f40584-en

Abstract

"The 2023 edition of International Migration Outlook analyses recent developments in migration movements and the labour market inclusion of immigrants in OECD countries. It also monitors recent policy changes in migration governance and integration in OECD countries. This edition includes two special chapters on the labour market integration of migrant mothers and on fertility patterns among migrant populations in OECD countries. The Outlook also includes country notes and a detailed statistical annex." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2023): Reporting Gender Pay Gaps in OECD Countries. Guidance for Pay Transparency Implementation, Monitoring and Reform. (Gender Equality at Work), Paris, 203 S. DOI:10.1787/ea13aa68-en

Abstract

"Pay transparency policies are gaining momentum throughout the OECD. Over half of OECD countries require private sector firms to report their gender pay gap statistics regularly to stakeholders like employees, employee representatives, the government, and/or the public. Gender pay gap reporting, equal pay audits and other pay transparency policies help advance gender equality at the workplace, as these measures present up-to-date information on a firm’s gender pay gap, encourage employers to offer equal pay for work of equal value, and give individual workers and their representatives valuable insights to fight for pay equity. This report presents the most thorough stocktaking to date of gender pay gap reporting policies and evaluations across OECD countries, and offers guidance to countries interested in introducing, reforming and monitoring their pay transparency systems to promote equal pay for women and men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Alcidi, Cinzia & Alexandre Ounnas (2022): Can the Pay Transparency Directive close the gender pay gap? (CEPS policy insights 2022-06), Brussels, 10 S.

Abstract

"Today, our thoughts go out to all women who have had to flee Ukraine to escape horror and to save their children, and to all those women who have remained behind to help defend their homeland. To those men and women who have the chance to live in (still) peaceful EU countries, we want to recall that gender equality remains a top priority. In the EU, major progress has been made in advancing women’s rights over the past 25 years but challenges still remain, especially on the labour market. The gender pay gap is definitely not yet closed. Despite progress over the past few years, women in the EU are still paid less than men for equal work of equal value. In 2018, the gap was on average 14 %, and it is likely to have increased during the pandemic. In 2019, President von der Leyen put gender equality among the six priorities of her new Commission. In March 2021 the Commission published a proposal for a Directive to strengthen the application of the principle of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value between men and women through pay transparency and enforcement mechanisms. Is pay transparency important to close the gender pay gap? The short answer is yes. Over time women have been closing gaps relative to men in education, labour market participation, and attitude; areas which typically (used to) explain the gap. Yet pay differences persist. New research points to within-company dynamics as one of the most significant contributors to the pay gap. The directive proposes to address it through transparency and information sharing. This is expected to reduce the gender pay gap, even though the implementation, and in particular the operationalisation of the concept of equal work, will pose challenges to companies, and eventually can negatively weigh on the overall benefits." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bartova, Alzbeta, Adeline Otto & Wim Van Lancker (2022): Making Parental Leave Policies Work for Single Mothers: Lessons from Europe. In: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Jg. 702, H. 1, S. 129-148. DOI:10.1177/00027162221134445

Abstract

"It is well documented that national parental leave policies encourage parents’ employment. Research on parental leave, though, has generally failed to draw lessons on how leave policy affects the employment and economic well-being of single parents. We examine the extent to which parental leave policies support the employment of single mothers with children under six years old across twenty-seven European countries, showing that single mothers are more likely to work and to work longer hours if they are eligible for parental leave. For single mothers who were not working before childbirth, eligibility for generous leave benefits and longer parental leave are associated with better employment outcomes after childbirth. We argue that while parental leave sustains employment for working single mothers, it might also facilitate entry into employment for nonworking mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bohmann, Sandra & Stefan Liebig (2022): Knapp ein Drittel der EuropäerInnen zweifelt an Chancengerechtigkeit auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. In: DIW-Wochenbericht, Jg. 89, H. 7, S. 97-106. DOI:10.18723/diw_wb:2022-7-3

Abstract

"Chancengerechtigkeit ist ein zentraler Bestandteil unserer Erwartungen an eine demokratische Gesellschaft. Dies gilt auch für den Arbeitsmarkt: Dieser Wochenbericht untersucht anhand von Befragungsdaten des European Social Survey 2018 (ESS), wie die europäischen Bürgerinnen und Bürger ihre Chancen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt ihrer Heimatländer einschätzen und welche Faktoren auf gesellschaftlicher und individueller Ebene dabei eine Rolle spielen. Etwa ein Drittel der Befragten ist skeptisch, was die allgemeine Chancengerechtigkeit auf dem Arbeitsmarkt in ihrem Land betrifft. Die eigenen Chancen schätzt immerhin die Hälfte der Befragten als gerecht ein. Sowohl die allgemeinen als auch die eigenen Chancen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt werden im Norden Europas etwas positiver bewertet als im Süden. Ohnehin benachteiligte Gruppen beurteilen auch ihre Arbeitsmarktchancen weniger positiv. Insgesamt zeigt sich ein klarer Zusammenhang zwischen der wahrgenommenen Changengerechtigkeit und der Zufriedenheit mit der Demokratie im eigenen Land." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Canaan, Serena, Anne Sophie Lassen, Philip Rosenbaum & Herdis Steingrimsdottir (2022): Maternity Leave and Paternity Leave: Evidence on the Economic Impact of Legislative Chances in High Income Countries. (IZA discussion paper 15129), Bonn, 48 S.

Abstract

"Labor market policies for expecting and new mothers emerged at the turn of the nineteenth century. The main motivation for these policies was to ensure the health of mothers and their newborn children. With increased female labor market participation, the focus has gradually shifted to the effects that parental leave policies have on women's labor market outcomes and gender equality. Proponents of extending parental leave rights for mothers in terms of duration, benefits, and job protection have argued that this will support mothers' labor market attachment and allow them to take time off from work after childbirth and then safely return to their pre-birth job. Others have pointed out that extended maternity leave can work as a double-edged sword for mothers: If young women are likely to spend months, or even years, on leave, employers are likely to take that into consideration when hiring and promoting their employees. These policies may therefore end up adversely affecting women's labor market outcomes. This has led to an increased focus on activating fathers to take parental leave, and in 2019, the European Parliament approved a directive requiring member states to ensure at least two months of earmarked paternity leave. The literature on parental leave has proliferated over the last couple of decades. The increased number of studies on the topic has brought forth some consistent findings. First, the introduction of short maternity leave is found to be beneficial for both maternal and child health and for mothers' labor market outcomes. Second, there appear to be negligible benefits from a leave extending beyond six months in terms of health out-comes and children's long-run outcomes. Furthermore, longer leaves have little, or even adverse, influence on mothers' labor market outcomes. However, some evidence suggests that there may be underlying heterogeneous effects from extended leaves among different socioeconomic groups. The literature on the effect of earmark" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Ceballos, Martha, Annick Masselot & Richard Watt (2022): Pay Transparency across Countries and Legal Systems. In: CESifo forum, Jg. 23, H. 2, S. 3-11.

Abstract

"The article proceeds as follows. In the next section, we detail the legislative experiences of the different countries that are included in our data set. The third section employs latent class analysis to group the different countries in our data set according to their gender pay gap and their pay transparency legislation. The fourth section posits a new perspective on the gender pay gap of non-legislating countries that leads to a theory (and indeed a value, at least for the countries in our data set) of a “natural rate” of the gender pay gap and a useful separation between countries with pay transparency legislation in place – those that out-perform the benchmark of not legislating, and those that under-perform relative to that same benchmark. Together with our latent class analysis groupings, this allows us to draw conclusions regarding the types of pay transparency law that appear to be more successful in the endeavor of reducing the gender pay gap. Finally, the fifth section concludes." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Costantini, Anastasia & Alessia Sebillo (2022): Gender Equality and Women Empowerment in Social Economy Enterprises: Enablers and Barriers. (Working paper / CIRIEC 2022,02), Liège, 34 S.

Abstract

"Women remain underrepresented in the labour market. In the EU, they earn 14,1% less than men, and they still experience barriers to access and remain at the labour market (Eurostat, 2021a). Currently, the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the gender dimension of social and economic inequalities, producing a severe gender impact and the risk of economic marginalisation of women. Why do we expect the social and solidarity economy to improve gender equality at work? Therefore, the paper will discuss the potential and limits of the SEEs in promoting gender equality and women's empowerment. The analysis has referenced existing literature and available information on the sector, including interviews with experts and illustrative cases within Diesis Network2, one of the broadest European networks supporting the social economy and social enterprise development. The aim is to show impactful solutions of SEEs and bring social and solidarity economy closer to the gender perspective to increase their impact in supporting inclusive and sustainable growth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Korsgren, Pontus & Max van Lent (2022): Earmarked Paternity Leave and Well-Being. (IZA discussion paper 15022), Bonn, 24 S.

Abstract

"Earmarked paternity leave has been introduced in an attempt to increase fathers' involvement in child rearing and to achieve gender equality in the labor market and at home. So far well-being effects of such policies are unexplored. This paper takes a first step in that direction by studying the impact of earmarked paternity leave quota on life satisfaction, job satisfaction, and work-life balance using several policy changes in Europe over the period 1993-2007. We find that earmarked paternity leave increases life satisfaction by 0.18 on a 10 point scale which is equivalent to a 10.8 percentage point increase even decades later. Both fathers and mothers benefit, though the increase in life satisfaction for mothers is nearly 30% higher than that of fathers. Perhaps surprisingly, the impact on job satisfaction and work-life balance is close to zero. Hence even when the impact of paternity leave quota on the labor market are small, the increases in life satisfaction may still justify the existence of such policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Matysiak, Anna, Daniela Bellani & Honorata Bogusz (2022): Industrial robots and fertility in European countries. (Working papers / Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw 2022-26), Warsaw, 65 S.

Abstract

"In this study we examine whether the long-term structural changes in the labour market, driven by automation, affect fertility. Adoption of industrial robots in the EU has tripled since the mid-1990s, tremendously changing the conditions of participating in the labour market. On the one hand, new jobs are created, benefitting largely the highly skilled workers. On the other hand, the growing turnover in the labour market and changing content of jobs induce fears of job displacement and make workers continuously adjust to new requirements (reskill, upskill, increase work efforts). The consequences of these changes are particularly strong for the employment and earning prospects of the low and middle educated workers. Our focus is on six European countries: Czechia, France, Germany, Italy, Poland and the United Kingdom. We link regional data on fertility and employment structures by industry from Eurostat (NUTS-2) with data on robot adoption from the International Federation of Robotics. We estimate fixed effects linear models with instrumental variables in order to account for the external shocks which may affect fertility and robot adoption in parallel. Our findings suggest robots tend to exert a negative impact on fertility in highly industrialised regions, regions with relatively low educated populations and those which are technologically less advanced. At the same time, better educated and prospering regions may even experience fertility improvements as a result of the technological change. The family and labour market institutions of the country may further moderate these effects." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Miller, Conrad, Jennifer Peck & Mehmet Seflek (2022): Integration Costs and Missing Women in Firms around the World. In: AEA papers and proceedings, Jg. 112, S. 578-582. DOI:10.1257/pandp.20221084

Abstract

"Where social norms favor gender segregation, firms may find it costly to employ both men and women. If the costs of integration are largely fixed, firms will integrate only if their expected number of female employees under integration exceeds some threshold. We use the distribution of female employment to estimate the share of firms with binding integration costs. Using global survey data, we find evidence for these binding integration costs in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and South Asia but not in other regions. We also show that the intensity of gender segregation preferences is correlated with these integration costs in the MENA region." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense (2022): No activation without reconciliation? The interplay between ALMP and ECEC in relation to women employment unemployment and inactivity in 30 OECD countries 1985-2018. In: Social Policy and Administration, Jg. 56, H. 5, S. 808-826. DOI:10.1111/spol.12806

Abstract

"Comparative welfare state research as examined the outcomes of active labour market policies (ALMP) and work-family reconciliation policies by and large been separately. As a result, potential complementarities between these policy areas have received scant attention empirically. Using macro-level data, this study answers the question to what extent, and in which way, governments' efforts in ALMP and in early childhood education and care (ECEC) services are complementary to each other in promoting women's employment rates and reducing women's unemployment and inactivity rates in 30 OECD countries from 1985 to 2018. The article theorises about how the various policies that constitute a welfare state relate to each other, distinguishing between pluralism, complementarity and substitutability. These findings provide support for the notion of welfare pluralism, in the sense that ALMP and ECEC policies work together in improving women's employment rates in slightly different ways: ALMP achieve this through reducing women's unemployment rates, whereas ECEC also achieve lower inactivity rates for women. There was, however, more support for the notion of substitution rather than complementarity: the marginal benefits associated with an increase in either ALMP or ECEC were smaller in the context of large investments in the other policy. In other words, the highest rates of women's employment, and the lowest rates of unemployment and inactivity, are found in countries with large investments in both ALMP and ECEC, but such higher investments are associated with diminishing returns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Nieuwenhuis, Rense (2022): No activation without reconciliation? The interplay between ALMP and ECEC in relation to women employment unemployment and inactivity in 30 OECD countries 1985-2018. (Working papers / Institute for Evaluation of Labour Market and Education Policy 2022,04), Uppsala, 36 S.

Abstract

"Comparative welfare state research has mostly examined the outcomes of active labour market policies and work-family reconciliation policies separately. As a result, potential complementarities between these policy areas have received scant attention empirically. Using macro-level data, this study answers the question to what extent, and in which way, governments' efforts in active labour market policies (ALMP) and in early childhood education and care (ECEC) services are correlated with women's employment rates, women's unemployment and inactivity rates in 30 OECD countries from 1985 to 2018. The article theorizes about how the various policies that constitute a welfare state relate to each other, distinguishing between pluralism, complementarity and substitutability. I interpret the empirical findings as being consistent with welfare pluralism, in the sense that ALMP and ECEC policies work together in improving women's employment rates in slightly different ways: ALMP is associated with low female unemployment rates, whereas ECEC also is associated with lower inactivity rates for women. There was, however, more support for the notion of substitution rather than complementarity: the marginal benefits associated with an increase in either ALMP or ECEC were smaller in the context of large investments in the other policy. In other words, the highest rates of women's employment, and the lowest rates of unemployment and inactivity, are found in countries with large investments in both ALMP and ECEC, but such higher investments are associated with diminishing returns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Palencia-Esteban, Amaia (2022): Occupational segregation of female and male immigrants in Europe: Accounting for cross-country differences. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 161, H. 3, S. 341-373. DOI:10.1111/ilr.12207

Abstract

"This article studies occupational segregation in Europe by gender and immigration status using the European Labour Force Survey for 2005–19. Unlike previous studies, it quantifies levels of segregation separately for female and male immigrants in each country. Overall, male immigrants experience lower occupational segregation than their female counterparts and the second generation is less segregated than the first. Segregation is generally lower in North-Western Europe and higher in the South-East. A counterfactual analysis reveals that immigrants' characteristics explain a small part of these cross-country differences. Institutional setting, integration policies and country-specific norms might play a major role." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Rebollo-Sanz, Yolanda F. & Sara De La Rica (2022): Gender gaps in skills and labor market outcomes: evidence from the PIAAC. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 20, H. 2, S. 333-371. DOI:10.1007/s11150-020-09523-w

Abstract

"Our paper makes the first attempt to address the empirical relationRicship between cognitive skills and gender gaps in labor market performance. We do so in a cross-country setting. To that end we use the PIAAC dataset, which contains information on OECD and non-OECD economies. Firstly, we document the existence of gender gaps in cognitive skills for numeracy, which are found to be around 2.5–4.6% and increase with age. These gaps remain even when comparing men and women within the same level and field of study. Next, we document sizable gender gaps in labor market outcomes, such as Labor Force Participation and hourly wages—around 18%, increase with age and rise remarkably for parents. Math skills are positively and strongly associated with these two labor market outcomes and its contribution to explain gender gaps, although significant, is limited—between 10 15% at most—in particular for parents." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Rendall, Michelle (2022): The Link between Gender Gaps and Employment Polarization. In: CESifo forum, Jg. 23, H. 2, S. 12-16.

Abstract

"The increase in employment shares both at the bottom and at the top of the skill distribution, combined with a decline in the middle, has been extensively documented for the US and many OECD economies since the 1980s. This observed employment polarization has become a well-known stylized fact. Less well known are the characteristics of employment polarization by gender, as polarization is usually studied at an aggregate level. Nonetheless, when studying employment polarization, in Cerina et al. (2021) we also consider one of the most important and dramatic social phenomena of the 20th century: the rise in female labor force participation, coupled with a rise in broad college attainment and a closing of the gender wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Silverberg, Laurie, Jutta Allmendinger, Michelle Boden, Frederic Jage-Bowler & Johanna Schleyer (Hrsg.) (2022): Gender Equality Advisory Council Report 2022: A shared vision for gender equality. Berlin, 108 S.

Abstract

"The 2022 GEAC Report describes the development of the G7 on the path to gender equality. Through both essays and data, it offers a clear picture of gender equality within the G7, highlights success stories, identifies areas for improvement, and provides evidence-based recommendations to the leaders of the G7. The first half of the report focuses on seven areas of action identified by the GEAC 2022; the second half offers a milestone in the work of the GEAC: the first-ever publication of the G7 Dashboard on Gender Gaps. This yearʼs GEAC focused on seven themes: Funding; Ownership, Entrepreneurship, and Investment; The Care Economy; Feminist Diplomacy; Gender-based Violence; Gender and Crisis; and Intersectional Policy. Each of these themes is presented with a dedicated essay that includes data and best-practice models and concludes with a series of recommendations to the G7 leaders. Four of these themes are further elucidated in a more accessible comic-strip format." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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(2022): Global Gender Gap Report 2022. Insight Report. (The global gender gap report 15), Genf, 373 S.

Abstract

"Gender parity is not recovering, according to the Global Gender Gap Report 2022. It will take another 132 years to close the global gender gap. As crises are compounding, women's workforce outcomes are suffering and the risk of global gender parity backsliding further intensifies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Unpaid care duties are key to gender gaps in the labor market. As illustrated in the report, across the Member States, care responsibilities are equally shared between women and men only in about one-third of families. The interplay between labour market and household conditions may create vicious cycles. The unequal division of unpaid care work between men and women reduces women’s access to and permanency in the labor market, and leads to a concentration of women in sectors and jobs allowing greater working time flexibility at the price of lower wages and career opportunities. Gender gaps in the labor market themselves reinforce the unequal division of unpaid care work in households. Work-life balance policies are therefore key for supporting women’s labor market participation and employment and achieving gender equality in the labour market. Although cultural and social norms on the gender division of unpaid work in the household are still relevant, the availability, affordability and quality of childcare and long-term care services, eligibility criteria, length and compensation level of parental, paternity and carers leaves, and flexible working arrangements all play an important role in promoting equal sharing of care tasks in the household enabling full and equal labor market participation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Although men and women are typically taxed under the same rules, their different social and economic characteristics (e.g. income levels or labour force participation) mean that the tax system can inadvertently contribute to gender inequalities in society. Understanding and improving the impact of taxes on gender equality is a key dimension that governments need to consider as part of tax design to support inclusive growth. This report provides the first cross-country overview of governments' approaches to tax policy and gender, including reforms undertaken to date and potential areas of explicit and implicit gender bias. Covering 43 countries, it also explores the extent to which governments take into account gender implications in policy development, gender considerations in tax administration and compliance, and the availability and use of gender-disaggregated data. Finally, it also discusses priorities for further work on tax policy and gender issues." (Author's abstract, © 2022 OECD) ((en))

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Amate-Fortes, Ignacio, Almudena Guarnido-Rueda, Diego Martínez-Navarro & Francisco J. Oliver-Márquez (2021): Measuring inequality in income distribution between men and women: what causes gender inequality in Europe? In: Quality & quantity, Jg. 55, H. 2, S. 395-418. DOI:10.1007/s11135-020-01009-2

Abstract

"Two objectives have been raised in this paper. On the one hand, an index has been elaborated that tries to measure the inequality of the income distribution between men and women. Secondly, the factors that determine this inequality have been analyzed, paying special attention to the role of the public sector through social expenditure policy. To this end, a panel data has been estimated for 33 European countries over a period of 15 years. The results show that income inequality and gender inequality are closely linked, and that social spending in general and health spending in particular improve income distribution equity between men and women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Bacheron, Johanne (2021): The impact of paternity leave on mothers' employment in Europe. (AMSE working paper 2021,10 halshs-03145794), Paris, 48 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, I use a pseudo-panel approach with data from the European Union Labour Force Survey to study the impact of paternity leave policies on mothers' employment in ten countries. Using a dynamic Difference-in-Difference strategy, I show that paternity leave increased mothers' employment rate by up to 17% in the long run, and average hours worked by 2 to 4%. There is substantial heterogeneity across countries in the effect of paternity leave policies. The impact on employment rates is positive and significant in eight of the ten countries of the sample, while the impact on hours worked can be either positive or negative. I find no evidence that the reforms had any impact on Greece or Portugal." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Baerlocher, Diogo, Stephen L. Parente & Eduardo L. G. Rios-Neto (2021): Female Labor Force Participation and economic growth. Accounting for the gender bonus. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 200. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2021.109740

Abstract

"Borrowing from the demographic dividend literature, this paper examines whether there is a gender bonus, namely an increase in the average living standard associated with increases in female labor force participation (FLFP) rates. Translating a per worker production function into a per capita one, it derives a linear dynamic model, the coefficient of which can be used to test for the existence of a gender bonus, and the reasons for this bonus. Using an international panel and applying a system GMM approach, it finds a positive and statistically significant effect of the growth of FLFP on economic growth and a positive but not statistically different from zero effect of the initial FLFP on economic growth. Importantly, we cannot reject the hypothesis that either of these effects is merely an accounting effect, namely a consequence of having more workers in the economy and more aggregate output. It finds no support for a secondary bonus through education or population growth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2021 Elsevier) ((en))

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Baranowska-Rataj, Anna & Mattias Strandh (2021): When things go wrong with you, it hurts me too: The effects of partner's employment status on health in comparative perspective. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 31, H. 2, S. 143-160. DOI:10.1177/0958928720963330

Abstract

"The effects of changes in employment status on health within couples have attracted increasing attention. This paper contributes to this emerging research by investigating whether the impact of a partner’s employment status on individual self-rated health varies systematically across countries with varying decommodification levels. We use longitudinal data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) and hybrid models. We find that a change in an individual’s employment status may affect the health not just of the person who experiences this transition, but that of his or her partner. The likelihood that such a spillover will occur varies across countries with different decommodification levels. The negative effects of a partner’s employment status on self-rated health are observed when the generosity of welfare state support is limited. The moderating effects of financial support from the state are not very strong, though. They are not robust across all our models and do not extend to all the dimensions of the generosity of welfare state support." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Berniell, Maria Ines, Lucila Berniell, Dolores De la Mata, María Edo, Yarine Fawaz, Matilde P. Machado & Mariana Marchionni (2021): Motherhood and the Allocation of Talent. (IZA discussion paper 14491), Bonn, 40 S.

Abstract

"In this paper we show that motherhood triggers changes in the allocation of talent in the labor market besides the well-known effects on gender gaps in employment and earnings. We use an event study approach with retrospective data for 29 countries drawn from SHARE to assess the labor market responses to motherhood across groups with different educational attainment, math ability by the age of 10, and personality traits. We find that while even the most talented women— both in absolute terms and relative to their husbands—leave the labor market or uptake part-time jobs after the birth of the first child, all men, including the least talented, stay employed. We also find that motherhood induces a negative selection of talents into self-employment. Overall, our results suggest relevant changes in the allocation of talent caused by gender differences in nonmarket responsibilities that can have sizable impacts on aggregate market productivity. We also show that the size of labor market responses to motherhood are larger in societies with more conservative social-norms or with weaker policies regarding work-life balance." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chica-Olmoa, Jorge & Marina Checa-Olivas (2021): Spatial impact of factors influencing the achievement of the Europa2020 employment targets. In: Papers in Regional Science, Jg. 100, H. 3, S. 633-649. DOI:10.1111/pirs.12592

Abstract

"In this paper, autologistic models are used to examine the impact of certain factors on the likelihood of European regions’ ability to meet the employment target for both men and women for the year 2017 in 270 EU regions at NUTS 2 level. The results show the role of both regional and gender differences in forming spatial clusters, as well as the presence of spatial interaction in achievement of the target. Moreover, meeting the European strategy's education target and increasing a region’s GDP levels also have a positive impact on achieving the targets. These findings may be of interest for the implementation of socio‐economic policies at a regional level, aimed at raising the employment rate for men and women in European regions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Chu, Yu-Wei Luke, Harold E. Cuffe & Nguyen Doan (2021): Motherhood Employment Penalty and Gender Wage Gap Across Countries: 1990-2010. (SEF working paper 9446), Wellington, 41 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, we employ twin birth as an instrument to estimate the effects of fertility on female employment using 72 censuses from 37 countries in 1990–2010. Next, we document a strong linear association between gender wage gap and the estimated motherhood employment penalty both across countries and within countries. Reductions in the gender wage gap are associated with decreases in motherhood employment penalty. Our estimates suggest that a reduction of one percentage-point in the gender wage gap is associated with a decrease of 0.4 percentage-points in the estimated motherhood employment penalty. Our finding supports the notion that job prospects and gender equality in the labor market play a direct role in a mother’s labor supply response to childbirth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ciminelli, Gabriele, Cyrille Schwellnus & Balazs Stadler (2021): Sticky floors or glass ceilings? The role of human capital, working time flexibility and discrimination in the gender wage gap. (OECD Economics Department working papers 1668), Paris, 43 S. DOI:10.1787/02ef3235-en

Abstract

"Despite changes in social norms and policies, on average across 25 European countries, there remains a gap of around 15% in hourly earnings between similarly-qualified men and women. This raises inequality and limits growth by preventing women from reaching their full labour market potential. Using individual-level data, this paper quantifies the main drivers of gender wage gaps with a view to devising effective policies to reduce them. The findings suggest that, on average, “sticky floors” related to social norms, gender stereotyping and discrimination account for 40% of the gender wage gap, while the “glass ceiling” related to the motherhood penalty accounts for around 60%. The importance of the “glass ceiling” is especially large in most Northern and Western European countries, while “sticky floors” explain the major part of the gap in most Central and Eastern European countries. These results imply that most Northern and Western European countries need to prioritise policies to address the motherhood penalty, such as further promoting flexitime and telework and supporting early childcare. Most Central and Eastern European as well as Southern European countries, where “sticky floors” are more important, additionally need to prioritise equal pay and pay transparency laws, measures to address gender stereotyping, competition in product markets, as well as higher wage floors where they are currently low." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Dudel, Christian & Sebastian Klüsener (2021): Male-Female Fertility Differentials Across 17 High-Income Countries: Insights From A New Data Resource. In: European Journal of Population, Jg. 37, H. 2, S. 417-441. DOI:10.1007/s10680-020-09575-9

Abstract

"Obtaining cross-country comparative perspectives on male fertility has long been difficult, as male fertility is usually less well registered than female fertility. Recent methodological advancements in imputing missing paternal ages at childbirth enable us to provide a new database on male fertility. This new resource covers more than 330 million live births and is based on a consistent and well-tested set of methods. These methods allow us to handle missing information on the paternal age, which is missing for roughly 10% of births. The data resource is made available in the Human Fertility Collection and allows for the first time a comparative perspective on male fertility in high-income countries using high-quality birth register data. We analyze trends in male–female fertility quantum and tempo differentials across 17 high-income countries, dating as back as far as the late 1960s for some countries, and with data available for the majority of countries from the 1980s onward. Using descriptive and counterfactual analysis methods, we find substantial variation both across countries and over time. Related to the quantum we demonstrate that disparities between male and female period fertility rates are driven to a large degree by the interplay of parental age and cohort size differences. For parental age differences at childbirth, we observe a development toward smaller disparities, except in Eastern Europe. This observation fits with expectations based on gender theories. However, variation across countries also seems to be driven by factors other than gender equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Duval-Hernandez, Robert, Lei Fang & L. Rachel Ngai (2021): Taxes, Subsidies, and Gender Gaps in Hours and Wages. (Working papers / Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta 2021,17), Atlanta, Ga., 48 S. DOI:10.29338/wp2021-17

Abstract

"Using micro data from 17 countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, this paper documents a negative cross-country correlation between gender ratios in market hours and wages. We find that market hours by women and the size of the service sector that produces close substitutes to home production are important for the gender differences in market hours across countries. We quantify the role played by taxes and subsidies to family care on the two gender ratios in a multisector model with home production. Higher taxes and lower subsidies reduce the marketization of home production and therefore reduce market hours. The effect is larger for women because of their comparative advantage in producing home services and the corresponding market substitutes. The larger fall in female market hours drives up the female wage relative to the male wage, resulting in higher gender wage ratios." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gaweł, Aleksandra & Katarzyna Mroczek-Dąbrowska (2021): Gender pay gap in explaining female entrepreneurship – industry perspective of selected European countries. In: International Journal of Manpower, Jg. 43, H. 9, S. 42-59. DOI:10.1108/IJM-12-2020-0554

Abstract

"Purpose: Although several theoretical concepts imply different determinants of female entrepreneurship, the literature lacks a consensus on their significance. The aim of this paper is to verify how industry specificity influences the gender pay gap and its relation to female entrepreneurship. Design/methodology/approach: The authors distinguish industries based on the gender equality level, measured jointly by two factors: pay gap level and female participation rate. The study has been conducted among 22 European countries with relatively similar institutional backgrounds. The authors carry out the analysis based on the panel regression models, which enable the authors to verify two predefined research questions. Findings: The results of panel regression models indicate that industry specificity plays a significant role in the relation between the pay gap and female entrepreneurship. Generally, it can be concluded that gender pay gap as a measure of gender inequality is dependent on the industry specificity. The dependence is especially visible in the breakdown of male- and female-dominated industries. Originality/value: The findings are consistent with the assumption that the gender pay gap is a discriminatory factor for women willing to become entrepreneurs in certain industries. The findings of the study may constitute a vital tool in planning to overcome it." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Giménez-Nadal, José Ignacio & José Alberto Molina (2021): How do women allocate their available time in Europe? Differences with men. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 908), Maastricht, 42 S.

Abstract

"This article explores the gender gap in time allocation in Europe, offering up-to-date statistics and information on several factors that may help to explain these differences. Prior research has identified several factors affecting the time individuals devote to paid work, unpaid work, and child care, and the gender gaps in these activities, but most research refers to single countries, and general patterns are rarely explored. Cross-country evidence on gender gaps in paid work, unpaid work, and child care is offered, and explanations based on education, earnings, and household structure are presented, using data from the EUROSTAT and the Multinational Time Use Surveys. There are large cross-country differences in the gender gaps in paid work, unpaid work, and child care, which remain after controlling for socio-demographic characteristics, although the gender gap in paid work dissipates when the differential gendered relationship between socio-demographic characteristics and paid work is taken into account. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of gender gaps in Europe, helping to focus recent debates on how to tackle inequality in Europe, and clarifying the factors that contribute to gender inequalities in the uses of time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hennig, Jan-Luca & Balazs Stadler (2021): Firm-specific pay premiums and the gender wage gap in 21 European countries. In: Verein für Socialpolitik (Hrsg.) (2021): Climate Economics. Beiträge zur Jahrestagung des Vereins für Socialpolitik 2021.

Abstract

"We study how firm premia influence the gender wage gap for 21 European countries over 12 years. We use a quadrennial harmonized matched employer-employee data set to estimate gender-specific firm premia. Subsequently, we decompose the firm-specific wage premia differential into a within- and between-firm component. We show that, on average in Europe, the former mainly accounts for the decline in the pay gap between 2002 and 2014, while the latter does not change significantly. An analysis of the subgroups by age and gender reveals heterogeneity in the development of the components. We pay particular attention to the development of each component across the life cycle and find that the between-firm component is associated with an increase in the gender pay gap across the life cycle. The decomposition of firm premia then allows us to investigate how institutional settings relate to each component. For the within-firm component we exploit firm-level differences in the collective bargaining regime, and we link family policies to the between firm component. Centralized wage bargaining is associated with higher gender wage gaps, whereas family policies enabling and encouraging women to return to the labor market after family formation reduces the between-firm component." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Korinek, Jane, Evdokia Moïsé & Jakob Tange (2021): Trade and gender: A Framework of analysis. (OECD trade policy working papers 246), Paris, 87 S. DOI:10.1787/6db59d80-en

Abstract

"Closing gender gaps makes good economic sense. Advancing the aim of women's economic empowerment will require policy action across a wide range of areas, including increasing their participation in international trade. Although trade policies are not de jure discriminatory, they impact women and men differently due to dissimilar initial conditions. Mapping the channels and interactions between trade and gender for women as workers, consumers, and business owners shows that: (i) trade impacts women workers differently to men in part because they are employed in different sectors — in OECD countries, more often in services; (ii) trade lowers prices for consumers, which particularly increases the purchasing power of more vulnerable groups, where women are disproportionately represented; and (iii) higher trade costs impede smaller businesses' access to international markets more than large firms, which impacts women who tend to own and lead smaller businesses. A framework is proposed for analysing the impacts of trade and trade policies on women that policy makers can use in order to ensure that trade and trade policies in their country support women's economic empowerment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Li, Qi, Chris Knoester & Richard J. Petts (2021): Cross-national Attitudes about Paid Parental Leave Offerings for Fathers. (SocArXiv papers), 40 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/dxy24

Abstract

"Using cross-national data from the 2012 International Social Survey Programme (N = 33,273), this study considers institutional, self-interest, and ideational factors in analyzing public opinions about the provision, length, and source of paid parental leave offerings for fathers. We find substantial support for generous leave offerings. Multilevel regression results reveal that being a woman, supporting dual-earning expectations, and realizing more family strains lead to support for more generous leave offerings. Endorsing separate spheres and intensive mothering attitudes reduces support for more generous leave offerings; although, gendered attitudes interact with one another in predicting leave preferences, too. Finally, country-level indicators of female empowerment and father-specific leave offerings are positively associated with preferences for more generous leave offerings. Overall, public opinions about fathers’ leave offerings across OECD countries largely support policies that provide opportunities for more involved fathering, but preferences continue to be gendered and linked to family strains and country-level contexts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lightman, Naomi & Anthony Kevins (2021): "Women's Work": Welfare State Spending and the Gendered and Classed Dimensions of Unpaid Care. In: Gender & Society, Jg. 35, H. 5, S. 778-805. DOI:10.1177/08912432211038695

Abstract

"This study is the first to explicitly assess the connections between welfare state spending and the gendered and classed dimensions of unpaid care work across 29 European nations. Our research uses multi-level model analysis of European Quality of Life Survey data, examining childcare and housework burdens for people living with at least one child under the age of 18. Two key findings emerge: First, by disaggregating different types of unpaid care work, we find that childcare provision is more gendered than classed—reflecting trends toward “intensive mothering”. Housework and cooking, on the contrary, demonstrate both gender and class effects, likely because they are more readily outsourced by wealthier individuals to the paid care sector. Second, while overall social expenditure has no effect on hours spent on childcare and housework, results suggest that family policy may shape the relationship between gender, income, and housework (but not childcare). Specifically, family policy expenditure is associated with a considerably smaller gender gap vis-à-vis the time dedicated to housework: This effect is present across the income spectrum, but is particularly substantial in the case of lower income women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))