Fluchtmigrantinnen und -migranten – Bildung und Arbeitsmarkt
Auf der Flucht vor Krieg und politischer Verfolgung verlassen viele Menschen ihr Heimatland und suchen Schutz und neue Perspektiven in Deutschland und beantragen Asyl. Die Beteiligung am Arbeitsmarkt wird häufig als Schlüssel für die gesellschaftliche Integration der Fluchtmigrantinnen und -migranten gesehen.
Welche Qualifikationen bringen die Menschen mit, welche arbeitsmarktpolitischen Maßnahmen sind hilfreich? Wie gehen die einzelnen Bundesländer damit um, welche Auswirkungen auf die deutsche Wirtschaft und die Sozialsysteme sind zu erwarten, wie sieht die Situation in anderen Ländern aus?
Dieses Themendossier stellt wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse zum Thema zusammen und ermöglicht den Zugang zu weiterführenden Informationen sowie zu Positionen der politischen Akteure.
Literatur zur besonderen Situation der Geflüchteten aus der Ukraine finden Sie im
Themendossier Auswirkungen des Krieges gegen die Ukraine auf Wirtschaft, Arbeitsmarkt und Fluchtmigration in Deutschland
- Literatur und Forschung aus dem IAB
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Zur Situation in Deutschland
- Positionen und Stellungnahmen
- zur Rechtslage
- Bildungstand und -förderung / Anerkennung von Qualifikation
- betriebliche Berufsausbildung/Berufsorientierung
- Studium
- Arbeitsmarktintegration, Maßnahmen und Programme
- Betriebe und Wirtschaftsbereiche
- Beschäftigungsformen
- Erwerbstätigkeit und Arbeitslosigkeit
- Geflüchtete im SGB II
- Löhne
- Arbeitsmarkteffekte der Flüchtlingszuwanderung
- Regionale Aspekte, Wohnsitzauflage
- Rückwanderung
- Daten und Statistik
- Quellen mit Unterscheidung nach Herkunftsregion
- Quellen mit Geschlechtsbezug
- Quellen mit Altersbezug
- Quellen mit regionalem Bezug
- Zur Situation in anderen Ländern
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Literaturhinweis
Asyl- und Flüchtlingsmigration in die EU und nach Deutschland (2015)
Zitatform
Brücker, Herbert, Andreas Hauptmann & Parvati Trübswetter (2015): Asyl- und Flüchtlingsmigration in die EU und nach Deutschland. (Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung. Aktuelle Berichte 08/2015), Nürnberg, 27 S.
Abstract
"Dieser Bericht befasst sich mit dem Umfang der Asyl- und Flüchtlingsmigration, der Umsetzung des Asylrechts, der Sozial- und Bildungsstruktur der Asylbewerber und Flüchtlinge, deren Arbeitsmarktintegration sowie Handlungsoptionen in den Bereichen Flüchtlings- und Migrationspolitik, Verteilung der Flüchtlinge und Asylverfahren in Deutschland sowie Arbeitsmarktintegration und Teilhabe." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
The unaccompanied refugee minors and the Swedish labour market (2015)
Zitatform
Celikaksoy, Aycan & Eskil Wadensjö (2015): The unaccompanied refugee minors and the Swedish labour market. (IZA discussion paper 9306), Bonn, 30 S.
Abstract
"More unaccompanied refugee children arrive to and get a residence permit in Sweden than in any other country in Europe. The number of children who arrives is increasing fast. The Swedish experiences are therefore of great interest also for other countries. In this paper we study the labour market situation in terms of employment and income for those who have arrived as unaccompanied minors and have been registered in Sweden. We compare them with those who also arrived as minors from the same countries but who have arrived together with their parents. After controlling for demographic and migration related variables we find that young adults who arrived as unaccompanied refugee children are more likely to be employed than those children who arrived accompanied from the same countries. Another result is that labour market participation is much lower for females than for males. We also compare the labour market situation of these children with that for those who were born in Sweden and are of the same age." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The impact of Syrian refugees on natives' labor market outcomes in Turkey: evidence from a quasi-experimental design (2015)
Zitatform
Ceritoglu, Evren, H. Burcu Gurcihan Yunculer, Huzeyfe Torun & Semih Tumen (2015): The impact of Syrian refugees on natives' labor market outcomes in Turkey. Evidence from a quasi-experimental design. (IZA discussion paper 9348), Bonn, 47 S.
Abstract
"Civil war in Syria, which started in March 2011, has led to a massive wave of forced immigration from the Northern Syria to the South-eastern regions of Turkey. This paper exploits this natural experiment to estimate the impact of Syrian refugees on the labor market outcomes of natives in Turkey. Using a difference-in-differences strategy, we find that immigration has considerably affected the employment outcomes of natives, while its impact on wage outcomes has been negligible. We document notable employment losses among informal workers as a consequence of refugee inflows. The majority of those who lost their informal jobs have either left the labor force or remained unemployed. Overall, unemployment rates have increased, while labor force participation, informal employment, and job finding rates have declined among natives. Disadvantaged groups - i.e., females, younger workers, and less-educated workers - have been affected the worst. The prevalence of informal employment in the Turkish labor markets has amplified the negative impact of Syrian refugee inflows on natives' labor market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Refugees and access to vocational education and training across Europe: a case of protection of white privilege? (2015)
Zitatform
Chadderton, Charlotte & Casey Edmonds (2015): Refugees and access to vocational education and training across Europe. A case of protection of white privilege? In: Journal of vocational education and training, Jg. 67, H. 2, S. 136-152. DOI:10.1080/13636820.2014.922114
Abstract
"This small-scale, highly original study connects themes which are rarely explored in relation to each other, particularly in a European context: vocational education and training (VET), refugees and race equality in order to explore how VET policies impact on racial equality, and the ways racial structures in Europe impact on VET. It begins to fill important gaps in cross-European research, firstly around VET and race, and secondly around refugees and VET. The paper is based on a study which examined the meso-social benefits of, and barriers to VET for adult refugees to European countries, commissioned by CEDEFOP, the agency funded by the European Commission to promote the development of VET in the European Union. In the paper, we argue that a key factor in shaping refugees' experiences of VET, are the racial structures integral to capitalist societies. Innovatively drawing on key literature which analyses white privilege in the labour market to contextualise our findings, we suggest that barriers faced by refugees are potentially related to structures of white privilege which shape notions of work and workers in Europe and sustain racial hierarchies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The impact of Syrians refugees on the Turkish labor market (2015)
Del Carpio, Ximena V.; Wagner, Mathis;Zitatform
Del Carpio, Ximena V. & Mathis Wagner (2015): The impact of Syrians refugees on the Turkish labor market. (Policy research working paper 7402), Washington, DC, 32 S.
Abstract
"Civil war in Syria has resulted in more than four million refugees fleeing the country, of which 1.8 million have found refuge in Turkey, making it the largest refugee hosting country worldwide. This paper combines newly available data on the 2014 distribution of Syrian refugees across subregions of Turkey with the Turkish Labour Force Survey, to assess the impact on Turkish labor market conditions. Using a novel instrument, the analysis finds that the refugees, who overwhelmingly do not have work permits, result in the large-scale displacement of informal, low-educated, female Turkish workers, especially in agriculture. While there is net displacement, the inflow of refugees also creates higher-wage formal jobs, allowing for occupational upgrading of Turkish workers. Average Turkish wages have increased primarily as the composition of the employed has changed because of the inflow of refugees." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Nachhaltigere Politikansätze zur Gestaltung von Flucht und Migration in den internationalen Beziehungen (2015)
Zitatform
Ette, Andreas (2015): Nachhaltigere Politikansätze zur Gestaltung von Flucht und Migration in den internationalen Beziehungen. In: Bevölkerungsforschung aktuell, Jg. 36, H. 5, S. 17-22.
Abstract
"Die Steuerbarkeit von Migration entlang eng definierter Kategorien von Fähigkeiten und Motiven der Migranten ('Arbeitsmigranten') ist nach den Entwicklungen der vergangenen Zeit ganz offensichtlich an Grenzen gelangt. Daher gibt der Beitrag einen Ausblick auf längerfristige Perspektiven einer möglicherweise nachhaltigen Gestaltung von Flucht und Migration und diskutiert unter anderem die bisherigen Bemühungen der Europäischen Union." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Understanding the role of immigrants' legal status: evidence from policy experiments (2015)
Zitatform
Fasani, Francesco (2015): Understanding the role of immigrants' legal status. Evidence from policy experiments. In: CESIfo Economic Studies, Jg. 61, H. 3/4, S. 722-763. DOI:10.1093/cesifo/ifv006
Abstract
"Programmes aimed at reducing the presence of unauthorized immigrants are often at the core of the migration policy debate in host countries. In recent years, a growing body of empirical literature has attempted to understand the effect of lacking legal status on immigrants' outcomes and behaviour. The main difficulties in this field are the scarcity of data and the identification challenge posed by endogenous selection into legal status. The vast majority of these articles have therefore used amnesty programmes (or similar policy changes) to establish causal relationships. In this article, we propose a first systematic review of the empirical literature for the USA and Europe on the impact of legal status on different immigrants' outcomes. We then present some new evidence of the relationship between labour market outcomes and legal status in the Italian context. In our empirical analysis, we first provide some descriptive evidence on differences in the outcomes for groups with different residence statuses, and we then exploit a specific amnesty programme to produce causal estimates of the impact of legal status. Our results confirm previous findings in the literature and show that the design of the specific amnesty analysed matters in shaping its effects." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Immigrants' effect on native workers: new analysis on longitudinal data (2015)
Zitatform
Foged, Mette & Giovanni Peri (2015): Immigrants' effect on native workers. New analysis on longitudinal data. (IZA discussion paper 8961), Bonn, 47 S.
Abstract
"Using longitudinal data on the universe of workers in Denmark during the period 1991-2008 we track the labor market outcomes of low skilled natives in response to an exogenous inflow of low skilled immigrants. We innovate on previous identification strategies by considering immigrants distributed across municipalities by a refugee dispersal policy in place between 1986 and 1998. We find that an increase in the supply of refugee-country immigrants pushed less educated native workers (especially the young and low-tenured ones) to pursue less manual-intensive occupations. As a result immigration had positive effects on native unskilled wages, employment and occupational mobility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Between control and support. The protection of unaccompanied minor asylum seekers at risk: the Dutch case (2015)
Galloway, Moira; Kromhout, Mariska; Smit, Monika;Zitatform
Galloway, Moira, Monika Smit & Mariska Kromhout (2015): Between control and support. The protection of unaccompanied minor asylum seekers at risk. The Dutch case. In: International migration, Jg. 53, H. 4, S. 51-61. DOI:10.1111/imig.12178
Abstract
"Drawing on research by the Research and Documentation Centre (WODC) of the Dutch Ministry of Security and Justice (Kromhout et al., 2010), this article describes how the Dutch government tried to protect Unaccompanied Minor Asylum Seekers (UMAs) who were (at risk of becoming) victims of human trafficking by implementing 'Protected Reception'. It was concluded that the three objectives of this pilot programme were met to some extent: the influx of risk groups and the number of disappearances decreased, yet there was no (immediate) increase in return migration to the country of origin, after leaving Protected Reception. An important question that was raised was how far a state can go in protecting these vulnerable young people, by (partially) limiting their freedom of movement. It was concluded that placement and stay in Protected Reception had to be qualified as a deprivation of liberty for which Dutch legislation did not offer any ground." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
A policy of vulnerability or agency?: refugee young people's opportunities in accessing further and higher education in the UK (2015)
Gateley, Davina E.;Zitatform
Gateley, Davina E. (2015): A policy of vulnerability or agency? Refugee young people's opportunities in accessing further and higher education in the UK. In: Compare, Jg. 45, H. 1, S. 26-46. DOI:10.1080/03057925.2013.841030
Abstract
"The UK government's austerity cuts have negatively impacted many voluntary-sector interventions that provided support to refugees. One such intervention, the Refugee Integration and Employment Service (RIES), is discussed in this paper. The RIES was a UK Border Agency-funded integration programme for recognised refugees and operated through voluntary-sector organisations nationwide. Findings of this small, qualitative study tentatively suggest that without bespoke support such as RIES, refugees will struggle to make informed and strategic decisions about their future education choices, restricting their ability to exercise autonomous agency. Current UK policy of counting refugees alongside other types of migrants will not cater for the specificity and multiplicity of issues faced by refugee young people. This will inhibit their opportunities and increase vulnerabilities, compounding their precarious position in UK society." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Anerkannte Flüchtlinge und subsidiär Schutzberechtigte am Arbeitsmarkt: Spezialthema zum Arbeitsmarkt, September 2015 (2015)
Grieger, Nadine;Zitatform
Grieger, Nadine (2015): Anerkannte Flüchtlinge und subsidiär Schutzberechtigte am Arbeitsmarkt. Spezialthema zum Arbeitsmarkt, September 2015. Wien, 4 S.
Abstract
"Ende September 2015 waren 18.968 anerkannte Flüchtlinge und subsidiär Schutzberechtigte in Österreich beim Arbeitsmarktservice gemeldet. Das entspricht einer Zunahme von rund 50% gegenüber dem Vorjahresmonat und einem Anteil von 4,8% an allen beim Arbeitsmarktservice arbeitslos gemeldeten oder in Schulung befindlichen Personen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Asylum policy in the EU: the case for deeper integration (2015)
Zitatform
Hatton, Timothy J. (2015): Asylum policy in the EU. The case for deeper integration. In: CESIfo Economic Studies, Jg. 61, H. 3/4, S. 605-637. DOI:10.1093/cesifo/ifv002
Abstract
"Over the last 15 years, the locus of policymaking towards asylum seekers and refugees has shifted away from national governments and towards the European Union (EU) as the Common European Asylum Policy has developed. Most of the focus has been on the harmonization of policies relating to border control, the processing of asylum claims, and reception standards for asylum seekers. But this still falls far short of a fully integrated EU-wide policy. This article examines the basis upon which a joint EU policy can be justified. I then ask whether superior outcomes can be achieved by harmonization alone or if more centralized policymaking is necessary. I chart the progress of harmonization and burden-sharing in the development of the Common European Asylum System and explore its effects. I also study the political feasibility of deeper policy integration by analysing public attitudes in the European Social Survey. I conclude that deeper integration is both" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Nordic labor market and migration (2015)
Ho, Giang; Shirono, Kazuko;Zitatform
Ho, Giang & Kazuko Shirono (2015): The Nordic labor market and migration. (IMF working paper 2015,254), Washington, DC, 44 S.
Abstract
"The large influx of migrants to Nordic countries in recent years is challenging the adoptability of Nordic labor market institutions while also adding to potential growth. This paper examines the trends, economic drivers, and labor market implications of migration to Nordic countries with a particular focus on economic migration as distinct from the recent large flows of asylum seekers. Our analysis finds that migration inflows to the Nordics are influenced by both cyclical and structural factors. Although migration helpfully dampens overheating pressures during periods of strong demand, and over the longer term will cushion the decline in labor supply from population aging, in the near-term unemployment can rise, especially among the young and lower-skilled. The analysis highlights the need to adapt Nordic labor market institutions in a manner that better facilitates the integration of migrants into employment. In particular, greater wage flexibility at the firm level and continued strong active labor market measures will help improve labor market outcomes among immigrants." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Arbeitsmarktintegration von Asylbewerbern und Flüchtlingen in Schweden, Dänemark und Großbritannien (2015)
Zitatform
Konle-Seidl, Regina, Franziska Schreyer & Angela Bauer (2015): Arbeitsmarktintegration von Asylbewerbern und Flüchtlingen in Schweden, Dänemark und Großbritannien. (Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung. Aktuelle Berichte 18/2015), Nürnberg, 15 S.
Abstract
"Die stark gestiegene Fluchtmigration stellt den Arbeitsmarkt in Deutschland vor große Herausforderungen. Der Aktuelle Bericht stellt dar, wie ausgewählte europäische Länder (Schweden, Dänemark, Großbritannien) bei der Arbeitsmarktintegration von Schutzsuchenden vorgehen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Constructing gender: refugee women working in the United States (2015)
Zitatform
Koyama, Jill (2015): Constructing gender: refugee women working in the United States. In: Journal of Refugee Studies, Jg. 28, H. 2, S. 258-275. DOI:10.1093/jrs/feu026
Abstract
"Drawing on data collected during a 26-month ethnographic study of refugees in a city in upstate New York, I examine the gendered and gendering training and work contexts with which refugee women engage. Utilizing the notion of assemblage, a term often associated with actor-network theory (ANT), I ask, among other questions, how do the gathered collages of texts, aims, histories, resources, knowledges, and practices that instantiate what we might recognize as resources for newcomers, come to frame refugee women as they enter the workforce? I demonstrate that through the processes of becoming employed, certain material objects, such as completed job applications, combine with case workers' assessments of employability, and employers' ethnic and gender stereotypes, to create socio-material renderings of refugee women. However, even as they participate in the labour market, the refugee women push against the constraints imposed by their limited English-language ability, lack of formal education, initial lack of socio-economic connections, culturally-defined gender roles, and gender stereotypes. I argue that greater efforts through changes in the national policy and also the related practices of local resettlement agencies should address gender more explicitly. Greater time investment in educational programmes, a longer period of workforce training in more varied, less gender-stereotypical areas, and explicit programmes educating the receiving community about the refugees could result not only in greater economic adaptation, but also increased social integration for refugee women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Asylum in Europe (2015)
Leithold, Daniel;Zitatform
Leithold, Daniel (2015): Asylum in Europe. In: CESifo DICE report, Jg. 13, H. 4, S. 55-58.
Abstract
"Asylum regulations in European countries still differ significantly. There is a minimum standard set by the European Union that all countries have to reach. This ensures that an asylum seeker has the same chance of gaining protection regardless of the country in which s/he applies for asylum. However, regulations that determine the long-term perspective for refugees differ and therefore influence host country decisions. The more national regulations are harmonized, the less influential they will be in the host country decisions made by asylum seekers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Hyper-precarious lives: migrants, work and forced labour in the global north (2015)
Zitatform
Lewis, Hannah, Peter Dwyer, Stuart Hodkinson & Louise Waite (2015): Hyper-precarious lives. Migrants, work and forced labour in the global north. In: Progress in Human Geography, Jg. 39, H. 5, S. 580-600. DOI:10.1177/0309132514548303
Abstract
"This paper unpacks the contested inter-connections between neoliberal work and welfare regimes, asylum and immigration controls, and the exploitation of migrant workers. The concept of precarity is explored as a way of understanding intensifying and insecure post-Fordist work in late capitalism. Migrants are centrally implicated in highly precarious work experiences at the bottom end of labour markets in Global North countries, including becoming trapped in forced labour. Building on existing research on the working experiences of migrants in the Global North, the main part of the article considers three questions. First, what is precarity and how does the concept relate to working lives? Second, how might we understand the causes of extreme forms of migrant labour exploitation in precarious lifeworlds? Third, how can we adequately theorize these particular experiences using the conceptual tools of forced labour, slavery, unfreedom and precarity? We use the concept of 'hyper-precarity' alongside notions of a 'continuum of unfreedom' as a way of furthering human geographical inquiry into the intersections between various terrains of social action and conceptual debate concerning migrants' precarious working experiences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Tradable refugee-admission quotas, matching and the new European agenda for migration (2015)
Zitatform
Moraga, Jesús Fernández-Huertas & Hillel Rapoport (2015): Tradable refugee-admission quotas, matching and the new European agenda for migration. In: CESifo DICE report, Jg. 13, H. 2, S. 50-56.
Abstract
"The recent proposal by the EU Commission to introduce a distribution key for refugees and asylum seekers is a welcome concrete measure to give solidarity and responsibility sharing in the field of asylum a practical content. It is akin to the distribution of initial quotas. We propose to extend this policy proposal in two directions. First, we propose to implement a matching mechanism to take refugees' and host countries' preferences into account. In doing so, the matching mechanism will contribute to lower the expected cost of hosting refugees for host countries and will improve refugees' long-term integration prospects. Second, we propose that the initial quotas allocated through the distribution key could be traded in a market for refugee-admission visas. The two proposed components are linked in the sense that the matching mechanism makes it possible to design a sanction scheme ensuring that receiving countries will have incentives to be attractive from the perspective of refugees and asylum seekers, that is, to offer them good treatment and conditions." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Tradable refugee-admission quotas, matching and the new European agenda for migration (2015)
Zitatform
Moraga, Jesús Fernández-Huertas & Hillel Rapoport (2015): Tradable refugee-admission quotas, matching and the new European agenda for migration. In: IZA journal of European Labor Studies, Jg. 4, S. 1-13. DOI:10.1186/s40174-015-0045-y
Abstract
"The Syrian Civil War gave rise to the largest refugee flight reaching Europe since the Yugoslavian wars in the 1990s. The crisis evidenced the deficiencies of the European Union Asylum Policy, which struggled both to offer solutions to Syrian refugees and to efficiently allocate costs across Member States. We draw on previous theoretical work to simulate how a system of tradable refugee-admission quotas coupled with a matching mechanism assigning refugees to their preferred destinations and destinations to their preferred types of refugees would give more flexibility to Member States while respecting refugee rights and preferences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Migrationsbericht des Bundesamtes für Migration und Flüchtlinge im Auftrag der Bundesregierung: (Migrationsbericht 2014) (2015)
Zitatform
(2015): Migrationsbericht des Bundesamtes für Migration und Flüchtlinge im Auftrag der Bundesregierung. (Migrationsbericht 2014). (Migrationsbericht des Bundesamtes für Migration und Flüchtlinge im Auftrag der Bundesregierung 13), Berlin, 298 S.
Abstract
"Der Migrationsbericht beinhaltet neben den allgemeinen Wanderungsdaten zu Deutschland (Kapitel 1) inklusive der EU-Binnenmigration von Unionsbürgern (Kapitel 2) und der detaillierten Darstellung der verschiedenen Migrationsarten (Kapitel 3) einen europäischen Vergleich zum Migrationsgeschehen und zur Asylzuwanderung (Kapitel 5). Zusätzlich behandelt der Bericht das Phänomen der illegalen/irregulären Migration (Kapitel 6), geht auf die Abwanderung von Deutschen und Ausländern (Kapitel 4) ein und informiert über die Struktur und die Demografie der Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund (Kapitel 7 und 8). Dabei wird in den jeweiligen Kapiteln auf die Bedeutung der einzelnen Migrationsstatistiken und die Grenzen ihrer Aussagefähigkeit eingegangen. Zudem werden kurz die Rechtsgrundlagen der einzelnen Zuwanderergruppen dargestellt sowie auf aktuelle Rechtsänderungen und relevante Gerichtsurteile eingegangen." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)
Weiterführende Informationen
Zusammenfassung
Aspekt auswählen:
Aspekt zurücksetzen
- Literatur und Forschung aus dem IAB
-
Zur Situation in Deutschland
- Positionen und Stellungnahmen
- zur Rechtslage
- Bildungstand und -förderung / Anerkennung von Qualifikation
- betriebliche Berufsausbildung/Berufsorientierung
- Studium
- Arbeitsmarktintegration, Maßnahmen und Programme
- Betriebe und Wirtschaftsbereiche
- Beschäftigungsformen
- Erwerbstätigkeit und Arbeitslosigkeit
- Geflüchtete im SGB II
- Löhne
- Arbeitsmarkteffekte der Flüchtlingszuwanderung
- Regionale Aspekte, Wohnsitzauflage
- Rückwanderung
- Daten und Statistik
- Quellen mit Unterscheidung nach Herkunftsregion
- Quellen mit Geschlechtsbezug
- Quellen mit Altersbezug
- Quellen mit regionalem Bezug
- Zur Situation in anderen Ländern