Abstract

"90 Prozent aller Mitgliedsstaaten der Internationalen Arbeitsorganisation (ILO) haben inzwischen die Kernarbeitsnormen gegen Diskriminierung ratifiziert und sich damit zur Verabschiedung entsprechender Gesetze verpflichtet. Doch Gesetze allein reichen nicht aus, um Diskriminierung wirksam zu bekämpfen. Der Bericht lenkt die Aufmerksamkeit von Regierungen und Sozialpartnern auch auf neue Formen der Diskriminierung, die noch zu wenig Beachtung finden - beispielsweise aufgrund von Alter, HIV/AIDS, eines ungesunden Lebensstils oder der Wahrscheinlichkeit bestimmter genetischer Krankheiten. Die meisten Fälle von Diskriminierung aber betreffen nach wie vor Frauen. Die ILO betont in ihrem Bericht daher die herausragende Bedeutung von Maßnahmen zur besseren Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf. So sollten familienfreundliche Maßnahmen nicht nur Frauen, sondern auch Männern offen stehen. In einigen Ländern, wie Island und Dänemark, wurden bestimmte Maßnahmen gezielt für Männer vorgesehen, beispielsweise ein besonderer Kinderbetreuungsurlaub nur für Männer. Nur wenn deutlich gemacht werde, dass die Wahrnehmung von Familienpflichten durch Männer sozial gewollt und akzeptiert wird, könne ein notwendiger Umdenkprozess stattfinden. Auch die Sozialpartner könnten durch entsprechende Ausgestaltung von Tarifverträgen einen Beitrag leisten, etwa indem Erziehungspausen nicht zu einer niedrigeren Einstufung führen. In Deutschland werden Frauen immer noch weniger eingestellt, rücken seltener in Führungspositionen und verdienen deutlich weniger als Männer. So beträgt das Lohngefälle zwischen Frauen und Männern laut dem Gleichstellungsbericht der EU-Kommission 22 Prozent, womit Deutschland in der EU auf dem viertletzten Platz landet. Auch die EU nennt die schlechte Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf als zentrales Hindernis auf dem Weg zu mehr Gleichberechtigung.
Weitere Empfehlungen der ILO zur Bekämpfung der Diskriminierung weltweit:
- Gesetzgebung, die nicht nur Diskriminierung verbietet, sondern aktiv Ziele zur Förderung der Gleichberechtigung setzt;
- Unterstützung der Sozialpartner, um Gleichstellungsfragen in der Tarifpolitik zu verankern;
- gezielte Arbeitsmarktpolitik zur Förderung und Einbindung benachteiligter Gruppen;
- Bindung der öffentlichen Auftragsvergabe an die Einhaltung des Diskriminierungsverbots;
- Einrichtung von Antidiskriminierungskommissionen beziehungsweise Kommissionen für Lohngleichheit;
- Förderung der Lohngerechtigkeit auf betrieblicher Ebene durch 'Kartierung' der Lohnstruktur, um Lohndiskrepanzen sichtbar zu machen und abzubauen;
- Einbindung von Gleichstellungsmaßnahmen in die Länderprogramme der ILO für menschenwürdige Arbeit ebenso wie in die Entwicklungszusammenarbeit, die staatliche Kreditvergabe und Investitionsförderpolitik." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Abstract

"The Global Employment Trends for Women Brief 2007 focuses on whether the tendency toward increased participation has continued more recently and whether women have found enough decent and productive jobs to really enable them to use their potential in the labour market and achieve economic independence. The approach is based on updates and analysis of a number of major labour market indicators. These include: labour force participation; unemployment; sector and status of employment; wages/earnings; and education and skills. Taken together, they show whether women who want to work actually do so, whether women find it harder to get a job than men, differences in the type of work done by women and men and equality of treatment in areas ranging from pay to education and training." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Blossfeld, Hans-Peter & Heather Hofmeister (Hrsg.) (2006): Globalization, uncertainty and women's careers. An international comparison. Cheltenham u.a.: Elgar, 475 S.

Abstract

"Globalization, Uncertainty and Women's Careers assesses the effects of globalization on the life courses of women in thirteen countries across Europe and America in the second half of the 20th century. The book represents the first-ever longitudinal analysis of micro-level data from these OECD countries focusing exclusively on women's relationship to the labor market in a globalizing world. The contributors thoroughly examine women's employment entries, exits and job mobility and present evidence of women's increased labor market attachment and reduced employment quality in most of the countries studied. They also systematically consider the life course changes influenced by larger transformations in society and, in doing so, explicitly link the phenomena of globalization to individual women's lives in Europe and North America.

Zitatform

Datta Gupta, Nabanita, Nina Smith & Mette Verner (2006): Child care and parental leave in the Nordic countries. A model to aspire to? (IZA discussion paper 2014), Bonn, 58 S.

Abstract

"The Nordic countries have remarkably high participation rates of mothers and a moderate decrease of fertility rates compared to other western countries. This has been attributed to the fact that the welfare state model and, especially, the family friendly policies chosen in the Nordic countries are unique. The availability of generous parental leave schemes including high compensation rates makes it possible for mothers to take a considerable time out of work in connection with childbirths and to return to their previous jobs afterwards, thanks to the high provision of public daycare. In this paper we evaluate family-friendly policies in the 'Nordic model' with respect to the two modes of child care i.e. either parental care facilitated by maternal and parental leave schemes or non-parental publicly provided care. Our questions for discussion are: Is there a 'Nordic model', and is it worth the cost if effects on child development and welfare are included? Is there a trade-of! f between family-friendly policies and family welfare, and are there serious negative boomerang effects of family-friendly policies on women?s position in the labor market? Is the 'Nordic model' a model to aspire to?" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Dimova, Ralitza & François-Charles Wolff (2006): Do downward private transfers enhance maternal labor supply? Evidence from around Europe. (IZA discussion paper 2469), Bonn, 32 S.

Abstract

"With the use of a theoretical model of downward private transfers with endogenous labor supply and recursive econometric models based on 2317 mother-daughter pairs from the 2003 SHARE data on 10 European countries, we investigate the impact of private transfers on the career choices of transfer-receiving young mothers. For Europe as a whole, we find a strong positive impact of grandchild care on the labor force participation decision of the mother, but no clear impact of either grandchild care or monetary transfers on the mother's degree of labor market involvement. However, the link between family transfers and labor supply exhibits an interesting pattern across institutional settings. Finally, while both recipients and donors with better endowments are more likely to participate in a monetary transaction, time transfers are such that mothers with lower level of human capital tend to assist the professional development of their better endowed daughters." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Haas, Barbara, Nadia Steiber, Margit Hartel & Claire Wallace (2006): Household employment patterns in an enlarged European Union. In: Work, employment and society, Jg. 20, H. 4, S. 751-771. DOI:10.1177/0950017006069813

Abstract

"Our aim is to contribute to better understanding of why different practices relating to the division of paid labour by sex in couple households are still to be found in different parts of Europe. We analyse data on the distribution of dominant household employment patterns in eight countries: Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Slovenia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Using comparative survey evidence for a large total sample (N = 10,123), we examine how national differences in terms of the gender division of paid work correspond with predictions drawn from well-established structuralist and culturalist theories of the determinants of cross-country variations.The findings call for a further elaboration of conventional approaches to explaining gendered employment patterns in an enlarged Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Johansson, Kerstin (2006): Do labor market flows affect labor-force participation? (Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2006,17), Uppsala, 56 S.

Abstract

"This study examines if the flow rate from open unemployment to labor market programs affect the labor-force participation rate. This question is relevant because Swedish labor-force participation is expected to decline due to the age distribution in the population. A new dataset, with monthly data for Swedish municipalities between 1991:08 and 2002:10, has been constructed. The results show that increased probability of moving from open unemployment to labor market programs has positive effects on the labor-force participation rate. Positive effects are found for different age groups. The estimated effect of the flow rate from open unemployement into labor market programs is countercyclical. The participation rate is procyclical, and counter-cyclical labor market programs could be used to prevent discouraged workers from leaving labor force. The effects of flow rates from programs to open unemployment, and from the job destruction rate are negative, as expected. Income and labor market tightness have positive effects, except for older participants. This is because is a spurios negative correlation in data for the older participants. In general, the long run levels are achieved after about nine years, and most of the adjustment takes place during the first four years." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Mandel, Hadas & Moshe Semyonov (2006): A welfare state paradox. State interventions and women's employment opportunities in 22 countries. In: American Journal of Sociology, Jg. 111, H. 6, S. 1910-1949.

Abstract

"This study explores the role played by the welfare state in affecting women's labor force participation and occupational achievement. Using data from 22 industrialized countries, the authors examine the consequences of state interventions for both women's employment patterns and gender inequality in occupational attainment. The findings reveal a twofold effect: developed welfare states facilitate women's access into the labor force but not into powerful and desirable positions. Specifically, nations characterized by progressive and developed welfare policies and by a large public service sector tend to have high levels of female labor force participation, along with a high concentration of women in female-typed occupations and low female representation in managerial occupations. The findings provide insights into the social mechanisms underlying the relations between welfare states' benefits to working mothers and women's participation and achievements in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Nivorozhkin, Anton (2006): Essays on unemployment duration and programme evaluation. (Göteborg University, Department of Economics. Economic studies 149), Göteborg: Göteborg University, Getr. Sz.

Abstract

"The process of labour market transformation in the 1990s attracted a lot of attention from economists and policy makers. Unprecedented changes, like rapid reforms in Central and Eastern Europe and later the expansion of the European Union, require a deeper understanding of current labour-market trends. This dissertation provides three essays focusing on the impact of the active labour market programmes and the determinants of unemployment duration in the second half of the 1990s in Russia and Sweden. The first two chapters of my dissertation provide a foundation for a policy analysis of issues related to unemployment duration and for an evaluation of the effect of training programmes offered by the state to unemployed individuals in urban Russia. Paper 1 investigates the impact of training programmes on wages of individuals. Using data from the official unemployment register combined with the information from the follow-up survey, I use the method of 'propensity-score matching' to evaluate the effect of training programmes. The result suggests that participants of training programmes receive higher wages after deregistering from the employment office. The paper identifies important gender differences; the effect of training was smaller for females. Paper 2 examines the determinants of unemployment duration of individuals registered as unemployed. The results of a piece-wise constant proportional hazard model imply that the hazard of finding a job is non-monotonic and tends to decrease with time spent in unemployment. An important finding is that only 29% of the unemployed obtained a job simultaneously with deregistering from the Public Employment Office (PEO). Others continued to search for job on their own. I find that the intensity of the job search increases after individuals leave the public employment office. The final chapter of the thesis, Paper 3, addresses the question of whether the possibility of exit from unemployment to the previous employer affects the duration of unemployment spells in Sweden. The empirical analysis is performed using an employee-employer dataset that includes a number of enterprise characteristics and provides information on individual tenure. The econometric approach employs estimation of a competing risk duration model to distinguish between exits to the previous employer and exits to a new job. The findings suggest that greater tenure raises the risks of transitions to the previous employer, while high education levels increase the risk of obtaining a new job. Moreover, the impact of benefit exhaustion is observed only for transitions to new employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Kenjoh, Eiko (2005): New mothers' employment and public policy in the UK, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Japan. In: Labour, Jg. 19, H. s1, S. 5-49. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9914.2005.00322.x

Abstract

"This paper investigates the link between family-friendly policies and women's employment after birth of the first child in the UK, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Japan in the 1980s and the 1990s. Our econometric analyses use household panel data from each of the five countries: BHPS, GSOEP, OSA, HUS, and JPSC, respectively. Public policies that facilitate the combination of motherhood and paid employment offer an effective means in increasing the participation rate of first-time mothers. The results also indicate that the availability and stimulation of good-quality part-time employment can provide additional, strong incentives for new mothers to enter active employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Plantenga, Janneke & Chantal Remery (2005): Reconciliation of work and private life. A comparative review of thirty European countries. Brüssel, 96 S.

Abstract

Der Bericht gibt einen Überblick über die verschiedenen politischen Ansätze zur Vereinbarkeit von Arbeit und Familie in 30 europäischen Ländern. Er informiert über die aktuelle Politik bezüglich Kinderbetreuung, Urlaubsregelungen, flexible Arbeitsarrangements und andere auf die Vereinbarkeit abzielende Ansätze, wie etwa die finanzielle Unterstützung berufstätiger Eltern. Nationale, öffentliche Strategien werden ebenso betrachtet wie Regelungen auf Branchen- oder Firmenebene. Neben den 25 EU-Mitgliedstaaten werden drei EWR-Länder (Island, Norwegen und Liechtenstein) sowie zwei Beitrittskandidaten (Bulgarien und Rumänien) in den internationalen Vergleich einbezogen. Es zeigt sich, dass es innerhalb Europas erhebliche Unterschiede zwischen Art und Umfang der politischen Maßnahmen zur Förderung der Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie gibt. Jedes Land hat seine eigene, einzigartige Kombination aus Kinderbetreuung, Urlaubsregelungen, flexiblen Arbeitszeiten und finanzieller Förderung. Insbesondere bei der Kinderbetreuung für die jüngsten Kinder scheint es Engpässe zu geben, wobei dieser Bedarf jedoch hier und da durch Elternurlaub bzw. informelle Arrangements gedeckt wird. Elternurlaub wirkt sich jedoch nicht immer zugunsten der Geschlechtergleichstellung aus. Zur Förderung der gleichmäßigeren Inanspruchnahme der Urlaubsansprüche oder anderer flexible Arbeitszeitregelungen spielt die Gestaltung dieser Regelungen eine zenrale Rolle. Diesbezüglich wird es als wichtig betrachtet, eine Segmentierung der Arbeitsmärkte zu vermeiden, indem auch bei Teilzeitarbeitsverhältnissen oder flexibler Beschäftigung für volle soziale Absicherung, Training und Beförderung gesorgt wird. Es wird für ein stärkeres Engagement der Arbeitgeber in Sachen Geschlechtergleichstellung plädiert. Die optimale Aufteilung der Zuständigkeiten zwischen Staat, Arbeitnehmer und Arbeitgeber ist jedoch schwierig, da die tatsächlichen Kosten der zur Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie getroffenen Maßnahmen unter Umständen - durch Lohnkürzungen und/oder geringere Beschäftigungsmöglichkeiten - auf die Arbeitnehmer abgewälzt werden können. Wahrscheinlich werden die negativen Auswirkungen auf die Arbeitnehmer minimal gehalten, wenn die Arbeitgeber nur eine geringe Rolle spielen und die meisten Kosten kollektiv getragen werden. (IAB)

Zitatform

Wadman, Mats (2005): Country report Sweden. Labour supply - Sweden's demographic trend and the council recommendations. In: E. Hönekopp (Hrsg.) (2005): The report of the European employment task force : impetus to European employment policy - impulses for Germany (Beiträge zur Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung, 293), S. 95-100.

Abstract

Der Arbeitsmarkt in Schweden zeichnet sich durch eine hohe Erwerbsbeteiligung aus. Dies gilt auch für Frauen und ältere Arbeitnehmer. Der Beitrag skizziert die Gründe hierfür, die vor allem in den steuerpolitischen, familienpolitischen und arbeitsrechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen gesehen werden. Dennoch ist angesichts der drohenden demographischen Entwicklung die Erhöhung der Erwerbsbeteiligung eine zentrale Herausforderung in Schweden. Vor allem Immigranten, junge Menschen, ältere Menschen und Rehabilitanden sind hier beschäftigungspolitische Zielgruppen. (IAB)

Abstract

"Finding a suitable work/family life balance is a challenge that all parents face. Many parents and children in Canada, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom are happy with their existing work and care outcomes. However, many others feel seriously constrained in one way or another, and their personal well-being suffers as a consequence. Some people would like to have children, but do not see how they could square that major commitment with their current employment situation. Other parents are happy with the number of children in the family, but would like to work more, either to find a greater sense of self-fulfilment, or to increase family income, or both. Yet others are happy with their family situation, but may wish to work different or reduced hours to spend more time with their children. They often do not do so because they cannot afford a pay cut or because they do not want to put their career prospects at risk. If parents cannot achieve their desired work/family life balance, not only is their welfare lower but economic development is also curtailed through reduced labour supply by parents. A reduction of birth rates has obvious implications for future labour supply as well as the financial sustainability of social protection systems. As parenting is also crucial to child development, and thus the shape of future societies, policy makers have many reasons to help parents find a better work/family balance. This study covers Canada (in particular the province of Quebec), Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom. It considers how a wide range of policies, including tax/benefit policies, childcare policy, and employment and workplace practices help determine parental labour market outcomes and may impinge on family formation. This volume also includes some options for policy reform towards a better reconciliation of work and family commitments in the four countries in question." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Gustafsson, Siv & Eiko Kenjoh (2004): New evidence on work among new mothers. What can trade unions do? In: Transfer, Jg. 10, H. 1, S. 34-47.

Abstract

"Der Beitrag untersucht die Beschäftigungsmuster von Müttern mit einem ersten Kind, ein Jahr vor der Geburt dieses Kindes bis zu seinem fünften Lebensjahr, in Schweden, Deutschland, dem Vereinigten Königreich, den Niederlanden und Japan. Die Angaben über den Arbeitskräftestatus von Müttern stammen aus den Haushaltspanel-Daten der einzelnen Länder. Diese Daten zeigen deutliche Unterschiede bei den Beschäftigungsmustern von 'neuen' Müttern. Die Autoren erörtern die Entwicklungen in der Familienpolitik, die die Unterschiede zwischen den Beschäftigungsmustern bei Frauen in den fünf Ländern erklären könnten. Dabei vergleichen sie insbesondere die Familienpolitik in Schweden mit den entsprechenden Maßnahmen in anderen Ländern, da Schweden seit den 70er Jahren besonders weit reichende Maßnahmen zur Förderung der Doppelverdiener-Familie eingeführt hat. Außerdem wird anhand einiger Beispiele aus den Niederlanden und Schweden erörtert, welchen Beitrag die Gewerkschaften in ihrem jeweiligen Land leisten können, um den Übergang zu einer Gesellschaft zu schaffen, in der sich Frauen und Männer die Versorgung und die Kinderbetreuung wirklich teilen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Albrecht, James, Anders Björklund & Susan Vroman (2003): Is There a Glass Ceiling in Sweden? In: Journal of labor economics, Jg. 21, H. 1, S. 145-177. DOI:10.1086/344126

Abstract

"Using 1998 data, we show that the gender log wage gap in Sweden increases throughout the wage distribution and accelerates in the upper tail. We interpret this as a strong glass ceiling effect. We use quantile regression decompositions to examine whether this pattern can be ascribed primarily to gender differences in labor market characteristics or in the rewards to those characteristics. Even after extensive controls for gender differences in age, education (both level and field), sector, industry, and occupation, we find that the glass ceiling effect we see in the raw data persists to a considerable extent." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Allen, Jim & Karin Sanders (2002): Gender gap in earnings at the industry level. In: The European Journal of Women's Studies, Jg. 9, H. 2, S. 163-180.

Abstract

"In this article the authors seek an answer to the question: does the percentage of women working in an industry have an effect on earnings distinct from the effect of sex at the individual level? On the basis of the 'comparable worth' approach, the authors hypothesized that, controlling for education, experience and sex, the percentage of women working in an industry would have a negative effect on earnings. This hypothesis was tested by performing multi-level analysis using data from 12 countries. The hypothesis was confirmed: the multi-level analysis showed a significant negative effect of the percentage of women in an industry on individual earnings, when individual characteristics were controlled for. This effect applied equally formen and women working in an industry. Part, though not all, of the effect could be accounted for by the fact that femaledominated industries are less unionized and more characterized by small firms than male-dominated industries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Gustafsson, Siv, Eiko Kenjoh & Cecile Wetzels (2001): Does part-time and intermittent work during early motherhood lead to regular work later? A comparison of labor market behavior of mothers with young children in Germany, Britain, The Netherlands, and Sweden. In: Vierteljahrshefte zur Wirtschaftsforschung, Jg. 70, H. 1, S. 15-23.

Abstract

Unter Verwendung vorliegender britischer, deutscher, schwedischer und niederländischer Daten wird untersucht, ob Teilzeitarbeit oder eine Erwerbsunterbrechung während der frühen Mutterschaft später zu Vollzeitarbeit führt. Es wird festgestellt, dass in Schweden zu dem Zeitpunkt, an dem das erste Kind vier Jahre alt ist, 80 Prozent der Mütter Vollzeit arbeiten, wenn eine Arbeitszeit von mindestens 25 Stunden als Vollzeitarbeit definiert wird, aber nur 30 Prozent 35 Stunden und mehr arbeiten. Diese Ergebnisse stehen im Widerspruch zum Erwerbsverhalten der Mütter in den anderen drei Ländern und wird als Effekt einer frauenfreundlichen Politik gedeutet. Weiter zeigt sich, dass in Schweden nicht so viele der Mütter im öffentlichen Dienst beschäftigt sind wie in den anderen Ländern. (IAB)

Zitatform

Gustafsson, Siv S. & Daniele E. Meulders (Hrsg.) (2000): Gender and the labour market. Econometric evidence of obstacles to achieving gender equality. (Applied econometrics association), Basingstoke: Macmillan, 336 S.

Abstract

"The purpose of Gender and the Labour Market is to analyze the remaining obstacles in achieving gender equality. The first chapters present different aspects of the gender earnings gap. Different counteries are studied and special emphasis is made on particular sectors and occupations. The next chapters deal with the postponement of first birth by educated women, the non-cooperative behavior in time use, gender differences in job and working mobility, transitions between employment status, discriminations contained in tax systems and poverty rates of single parent households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))