Übergänge in Ausbildung und Beschäftigung
Wer einen Ausbildungsplatz sucht, braucht einen möglichst guten Schulabschluss. Eine abgeschlossene Berufsausbildung ist wiederum ein entscheidender Faktor für die dauerhafte Integration in den Arbeitsmarkt und in die Gesellschaft. Viele Jugendliche scheitern jedoch an den beiden Hürden Schulabschluss und Ausbildungsplatzsuche. Neben leistungsschwächeren Jugendlichen sind vor allem sozial Benachteiligte betroffen. Dieses Themendossier präsentiert mit Hinweisen auf Forschungsprojekte sowie weiteren relevanten Internetquellen wissenschaftliche Befunde und Diskussionen zur Übergangsproblematik an der 1. und 2. Schwelle sowie politischen Förderstrategien zur Verbesserung der Einmündung in Ausbildung und Beschäftigung.
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Literaturhinweis
Young Europeans: employment and social challenges ahead (2022)
Zitatform
(2022): Young Europeans: employment and social challenges ahead. (Employment and social developments in Europe : annual review 2022), Brüssel, 133 S. DOI:10.2767/229768
Abstract
"The exceptional response of solidarity to the COVID-19 pandemic has helped to mitigate some of the socio-economic impact of the crisis, keeping income inequality and poverty in the EU at bay. This year’s edition of the Employment and Social Developments in Europe (ESDE) confirms the tentative findings of the previous one in this respect and provides further insights on the recovery. Nevertheless, during the last two years, some groups - such as young people - were more affected than others. These inequalities risk to be reinforced by the consequences of Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine, particularly given the recent price spikes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Who Benefits from General Knowledge? (2021)
Zitatform
Bellés-Obrero, Cristina & Emma Duchini (2021): Who Benefits from General Knowledge? In: Economics of Education Review, Jg. 85. DOI:10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102122
Abstract
"While vocational education is meant to provide occupational-specific skills that are directly employable, their returns may be limited in fast-changing economies. Conversely, general education should provide learning skills, but these may have little value at low levels of education. This paper contributes to this debate by exploiting a reform introduced in Spain in 1990 that postponed students' choice between these two educational pathways from age 14 to 16. To identify exogenous changes in this policy, we instrument its staggered implementation with pre-reform province shares of students in general education interacted with cohort fixed effects. Results indicate that, by shifting educational investment from vocational to general education after age 16, the reform improves occupational outcomes and wages. However, these positive effects are concentrated among middle to high-skilled individuals. In contrast, those who acquire only basic general education have worse long-term employment prospects than vocationally-trained individuals." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2022 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Territorial disparities in youth labour market chances in Europe (2021)
Zitatform
Cefalo, Ruggero & Rosario Scandurra (2021): Territorial disparities in youth labour market chances in Europe. In: Regional Studies, Regional Science, Jg. 8, H. 1, S. 228-238. DOI:10.1080/21681376.2021.1925580
Abstract
"Comparative research on youth employment has mostly focused on differences between countries or regimes of youth transitions. The territorial differentiation below country level has been less explored, notwithstanding the potential impact on youth-life chances and the territorial cohesion of the European Union. This paper aims at deepening into the investigation of regional variations in patterns of youth labour market chances. To do this, we build on a composite indicator measuring regional youth labour market integration (YLMI) as a comprehensive measure of contextual fragilities (or strengths) of regional youth labour markets. We provide both comparative and longitudinal views over 15 years (2004–18). Furthermore, we explore the impact of contextual factors related to economic conditions, labour market and demographic trends on the regional patterns of youth integration in the labour market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Measuring Youth Living Conditions in Europe: A Multidimensional Cross-Country Approach (2021)
Zitatform
Corrales-Herrero, Helena & Beatriz Rodriguez-Prado (2021): Measuring Youth Living Conditions in Europe: A Multidimensional Cross-Country Approach. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 155, H. 3, S. 1077-1117. DOI:10.1007/s11205-021-02608-8
Abstract
"Since the onset of the Great Recession, it could be argued that it is the young who have been hardest hit in their living conditions. This paper offers a comprehensive description of youth living conditions and how they evolved during the recession period. To do so, we develop a synthetic index combining the indicators proposed by experts in the dimensions of Education and Training, Employment and Entrepreneurship, and Social Inclusion, through a multi-criteria approach based on the double reference point method. This technique enriches the debate by shifting the focus to acceptable and desirable thresholds for each indicator and by overcoming limitations inherent in previous youth indexes that allow for total compensation between the indicators, whilst ignoring potential imbalances. Results show that, in a context of convergence in policy instruments across countries during the Great Recession, there was an improvement in education performance, whereas cross-country divergences in terms of youth labour market prospects and social inclusion increased. This evolution has led to a more complex picture which is characterized by greater polarization in the spatial distribution of youth living conditions, with two noticeable poles: north-central Europe as opposed to the south and east of Europe. Differences in institutional configurations in the fields of education and training, active labour market policies, employment protection legislation and welfare provision together with macroeconomic trends, particularly levels of demand for youth labour and fiscal resources, have played an important role in shaping European youth living conditions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Trade, Human Capital, and Income Risk (2021)
Zitatform
Deng, Liuchun, Pravin Krishna, Mine Zeynep Senses & Jens Stegmaier (2021): Trade, Human Capital, and Income Risk. (IZA discussion paper 14953), Bonn, 40 S.
Abstract
"In this paper, we empirically assess the causal links between trade and individual income risk and study the role that human capital plays in this relationship using a rich, worker-level, longitudinal data set from Germany spanning 1976 to 2012. Our estimates suggest substantial heterogeneity in labor income risk across workers in different entry cohorts and across workers with different levels of industry- and occupation-specific human capital. Our findings suggest that within-industry changes in imports and exports are causally related to income risk: Imports increase risk and exports decrease risk, and they do so in an economically significant manner. Importantly, we find there to be a complex interplay between human capital and the linkage between trade and risk: While, on average, individuals with higher levels of industry- or occupation-specific human capital experience lower income risk, a given increase in net-imports exposure in an industry increases risk for workers with higher levels of industry tenure more than it does for workers with lower levels of industry tenure. High levels of industry-specific human capital can be costly for workers in highly trade-exposed industries. By contrast, we find no evidence of any interaction between risk, industry trade exposure, and occupation-specific human capital." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen (möglw. abweichend) als: NBER working paper -
Literaturhinweis
Gender Differences Among Youth: Education to Job Transitions in Azerbaijan, Georgia and Tajikistan (2021)
Zitatform
Gebel, Michael, Kseniia Gatskova & Tatiana Karabchuk (2021): Gender Differences Among Youth: Education to Job Transitions in Azerbaijan, Georgia and Tajikistan. In: T. Karabchuk, K. Kumo, K. Gatskova & E. Skoglund (Hrsg.) (2021): Gendering Post-Soviet Space. Demography, Labor Market and Values in Empirical Research, S. 49-71, 2020-06-01. DOI:10.1007/978-981-15-9358-1_3
Abstract
"Despite education expansion, decreasing fertility rate and economic progress, women still face labor market integration problems and labor market disadvantages compared to men around the world. This applies also to the region of the Caucasus and Central Asia (CCA) and especially to Muslim societies of the CCA region due to the general weak labor market attachment of women in Muslim countries. As gender inequalities emerge already quite early in the working life this chapter focuses on gender inequalities in the transition from education to work. The key research question is how strong gender inequality is among young people who are transiting from school to work in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Tajikistan. The nationally representative, retrospective life history data from the TEW-CCA “Youth Transitions Surveys” of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Tajikistan 2017 are used to answer the research question. The gender inequality is described here in various aspects of the transition from education to work. First, the labor market inactivity decision is examined. Second, among those who are active in the labor market, it is investigated how much time it takes from the time of graduation until the moment of finding a first job. Third, the quality of the first job obtained is analyzed in terms of chances of getting access to formal sector jobs. Comparing results across the three countries will allow us to highlight cross-country similarities and differences that are expected because of the common past Soviet institutional legacy and varying economic and cultural conditions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer Nature Singapore Pte) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Young people not in employment, education or training (NEET): the role of basic competencies (2021)
Zitatform
Giret, Jean-Francois & Janine Jongbloed (2021): Young people not in employment, education or training (NEET): the role of basic competencies. (Training & employment 154), Marseille, 4 S.
Abstract
"A top priority for public policies at both national and European levels, young people who are not in employment, education or training (NEET) face a risk of exclusion that varies in intensity from country to country. While education level plays a central role in these situations, viewing them through the lens of basic competencies sharpens the focus. After all, the international data show that the same level of qualification does not guarantee the same level of competencies everywhere. How can these differences be explained? To what extent do these basic competencies protect young people from becoming not in employment, education or training regardless of their level of qualification?" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Uncertain occupational expectations at age 19 and later educational and labour market outcomes (2021)
Zitatform
Greve, Jane, Morten Saaby, Anders Rosdahl & Vibeke Tornhøj Christensen (2021): Uncertain occupational expectations at age 19 and later educational and labour market outcomes. In: Labour, Jg. 35, H. 2, S. 163-191. DOI:10.1111/labr.12194
Abstract
"Many young people lack clear subjective occupational expectations. A concern is how they will perform later in life. We examine the impact of uncertain expectations at age 19 on education and labour market outcomes at age 30. We use the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2000 survey conducted on a nationally representative sample of 15-year-olds, a follow-up survey in 2004, and administrative registry data from 2004–2014. We find that uncertain expectations are associated with low educational attainment and weak labour market attachment. This result applies mainly for young men and for young people from low socioeconomic backgrounds." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Effects of Letters of Recommendation in the Youth Labor Market (2021)
Zitatform
Heller, Sara B. & Judd B. Kessler (2021): The Effects of Letters of Recommendation in the Youth Labor Market. (NBER working paper 29579), Cambridge, Mass, 43 S. DOI:10.3386/w29579
Abstract
"Youth employment has been near historic lows in recent years, and racial gaps persist. This paper tests whether information frictions limit young people's labor market success with a field experiment involving over 43,000 youth in New York City. We build software that allows employers to quickly and easily produce letters of recommendation for randomly selected youth who worked under their supervision during a summer youth employment program. We then send these letters to nearly 9,000 youth over two years. Being sent a letter generates a 3 percentage point (4.5 percent) increase in employment the following year, with both employment and earnings increases persisting over the two-year follow-up period. By posting our own job advertisement, we document that while treatment youth do use the letters in applications, there is no evidence of other supply-side responses (i.e., no increased job search, motivation, or confidence); effects appear to be driven by the demand side. Labor market benefits accrue primarily to racial and ethnic minorities, suggesting frictions may contribute to racial employment gaps. But improved employment may also hamper on-time high school graduation. Additional evidence indicates that letters help improve job match quality. Results suggest that expanding the availability of credible signals about young workers—particularly for those not on the margin of graduating high school—could improve the efficiency of the youth labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Some young people have all the luck! The duration dependence of the school-to-work transition in Europe (2021)
Zitatform
Pastore, Francesco, Claudio Quintano & Antonella Rocca (2021): Some young people have all the luck! The duration dependence of the school-to-work transition in Europe. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 70, S. 1-18. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2021.101982
Abstract
"This paper provides sound, comparative empirical evidence on the duration of the school-to-work-transition (STWT) across 14 European countries using information available in the EU-SILC database. We define the duration of the STWT as the time needed for young people to secure their first regular job (at least six months) after completing their studies. We highlight the existence of dramatic inequality both across and within countries, namely by education level. The duration ranges on average from 13 (UK) to 34 months (Italy) and the gap still remains after 10 years. We then study the determinants of the duration by means of parametric survival models, with the distribution of hazard rates for finding a regular job being proxied by a Weibull distribution, which reveals the best fit based on a number of statistical tests. We test for omitted heterogeneity by means of the frailty survival model and find consistent evidence of positive duration dependence, suggesting that, as times passes, young people increase their hazard rate for finding a regular job as soon as they gain work experience and accumulate work-related competences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2021 Elsevier) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Duration of the School-To-Work Transition in Italy and in Other European Countries: A Flexible Baseline Hazard Interpretation (2021)
Zitatform
Pastore, Francesco, Claudio Quintano & Antonella Rocca (2021): The Duration of the School-To-Work Transition in Italy and in Other European Countries: A Flexible Baseline Hazard Interpretation. (IZA discussion paper 14832), Bonn, 24 S.
Abstract
"Purpose: The Italian school-to-work transition (STWT) is astonishingly slow and long in comparison to the other EU countries. The aim of this paper is to analyze its determinants comparing the Italian case with Austria, Poland and the UK in a gender perspective. Design/methodology/ approach: The analysis is based on a Cox survival model with proportional hazard. The smoothed hazard estimates allow us to identify the non-linear path of the hazard function. Findings: We reckon that the actual length of the transition to a stable job is around 30 months. Conversely, it is less than one year in the other countries. Women are particularly penalized, despite being on average more educated than men. Attaining a tertiary degree or a vocational path of education at high secondary school strongly increases the hazard rate. The smoothed hazard estimates support the hypothesis of positive duration dependence at the beginning of the transition and slightly negative thereafter. Practical implications: Stimulating economic growth and investing in education and training are important pre-conditions for shortening the transition. Originality: Despite the duration of the STWT is one of the most important indicators to measure the efficiency of the STWT, it is not easy to measure. The authors build on their previous research work on this topic, but relaxing the assumption of a monotonic hazard rate and using the flexible baseline hazard approach to test for the existence of non-linear duration dependence. Furthermore, they extend the analysis by including student-workers who attended a vocational path of education, in order to detect its effectiveness in allowing young people finding a job sooner." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
School to work outcomes during the Great Recession, is the regional scale relevant for young people’s life chances? (2021)
Zitatform
Scandurra, Rosario, Ruggero Cefalo & Yuri Kazepov (2021): School to work outcomes during the Great Recession, is the regional scale relevant for young people’s life chances? In: Journal of Youth Studies, Jg. 24, H. 4, S. 441-465. DOI:10.1080/13676261.2020.1742299
Abstract
"The debate on territorial cohesion and spatial inequality recognises the role and influence different scales have on individuals’ opportunities with extended effects especially for young people’s life chances. In particular, a regional perspective into territorial disparities of socio-economic conditions and welfare in Europe provides a more fine-grained view on the existence of territorially diverging income and labour market conditions for youth that a national level analysis is not able to grasp. This paper focus on regional differences in school to work outcomes of young people using macro-panel data covering the period from 2005 until 2016. We use a plurality of indicators to study to what extent school to work transitions are better studied at regional level and to characterise those transitions in a more comprehensive way. Our findings demonstrate that there are huge differences both in the level and in the dispersion of young people’s school to work outcomes across European territories. This tells us that the allegedly assumed national homogeneity of transition systems can definitely not be taken for granted. Moreover, we show that the Great Recession had strong but differentiated impacts at regional level." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Who is really 'left behind'? Half a century of gender differences in the school-to-work transitions of low-educated youth (2021)
Zitatform
Struffolino, Emanuela & Camilla Borgna (2021): Who is really 'left behind'? Half a century of gender differences in the school-to-work transitions of low-educated youth. In: Journal of Youth Studies, Jg. 24, H. 2, S. 162-185. DOI:10.1080/13676261.2020.1713308
Abstract
"At a time of growing expectations about educational attainment, young people who did not complete upper-secondary schooling can easily be "left behind" to face risks of social exclusion. Being able to make a rapid and successful transition into a first significant job is crucial for long-term labor-market attachment. We approach the question of continuity or change in school-to-work transitions by comparing the experiences of four birth cohorts of early school leavers in Italy, where they still constitute a sizeable group as of today. Italy makes for an interesting case study due to the length of school-to-work transitions and the extent of gender differences in this phase. In an era of educational expansion and increased female activation, studying changes in low-educated women's labor-market access brings into focus the question of who is really left behind. Using data from the 2009 "Multi-purpose Survey on Household and Social Subjects", we use discrete time logistic regression models to estimate the probability of transitioning to the first significant job for early school leavers born between 1954 and 1993. We find that gender differences are strikingly persistent across birth cohorts, even after controlling for sociodemographic variables as well as for time-varying fertility and partnership histories." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Labor Market Uncertainties and Youth Labor Force Experiences: Lessons Learned (2020)
Kalleberg, Arne L.;Zitatform
Kalleberg, Arne L. (2020): Labor Market Uncertainties and Youth Labor Force Experiences: Lessons Learned. In: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Jg. 688, H. 1, S. 258-270. DOI:10.1177/0002716220913861
Abstract
"Labor market uncertainties have plagued all countries in recent years, but young workers have borne the brunt of these uncertainties. Liberalization of labor markets has transformed work, creating a variety of nonstandard employment relations as well as increasing the number of people who do not have traditional employers. Macro social, political, and economic forces have also made it harder for young adults to gain solid footholds in the labor market. The articles in this issue of The ANNALS present empirical evidence about labor market uncertainties and youth labor force experiences from diverse regions of the world, both in the Global North and Global South: Asia (China, South Korea, Hong Kong, Caucasus and Central Asia); Latin/South America (Mexico, Brazil); Eastern Europe (Lithuania); Western Europe; and the United States. In this epilogue, I summarize the main insights from the articles and draw some broader conclusions about the future of labor market policies to address concerns related to workers? insecurities and uncertainties." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The impact of dual apprenticeship programs on early labour market outcomes: a dynamic approach (2020)
Zitatform
Neyt, Brecht, Dieter Verhaest & Stijn Baert (2020): The impact of dual apprenticeship programs on early labour market outcomes. A dynamic approach. In: Economics of Education Review, Jg. 78. DOI:10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.102022
Abstract
"This study examines the impact of enrolling into dual apprenticeship programmes during secondary education on six early employment outcomes. Our contribution to the literature is threefold. First, we apply a method that has rarely been used in this literature to control for potential selection biases. Second, this method allows us to distinguish between the programmes' direct effect (conditional on educational achievement) and indirect effect (via educational achievement) on labour market outcomes. Third, we examine the impact of two distinct dual apprenticeship programmes in a novel setting: Flanders (Belgium). We find evidence for short-term labour market advantages only for the programme with the most days of on-the-job training, which fade out quickly over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2020 Elsevier) ((en))
Ähnliche Treffer
auch erschienen als: IZA discussion paper, 12011 -
Literaturhinweis
Educating self-governing learners and employees: studying, learning and pedagogical practices in the context of vocational education and its reform (2020)
Zitatform
Niemi, Anna-Maija & Markku Jahnukainen (2020): Educating self-governing learners and employees: studying, learning and pedagogical practices in the context of vocational education and its reform. In: Journal of youth studies, Jg. 23, H. 9, S. 1143-1160. DOI:10.1080/13676261.2019.1656329
Abstract
"The present article considers pedagogical practices and learning, students' assumed self-governing, and the need for educational support in relation to students' wish to receive proper teaching and guidance and to become well educated. The analysis is based on an ethnographic study in one vocational school in the Helsinki Metropolitan area. The research interest is in how the narratives of the students and the episodes documented in the field recount the ethos of the current vocational education reform. We ask: (1) How are pedagogical practices organised and how do the students recount their studies, teaching and support for learning?; (2) How do the narratives on both education and working life practices relate to the discourse on self-governing? The research data consists of the fieldnotes on 27 school days and transcribed interviews and group interviews with the students, teachers and other educators. This study shows that in the school's practices, the education policy objectives of ideal student as self-governing and autonomous are in conflict with the lack of teachers' time and attention for the students. The analysis makes evident the significance of educational support and the school's social aspect. It also suggests that emphasising self-governing does not meet the everyday life of young people and educators, and it actually produces resistance in the school and workplace contexts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Home or away?: Pathways to employment for the highly qualified in Armenia after the Velvet Revolution (2020)
Zitatform
Sargsyan, Marine & David Cairns (2020): Home or away? Pathways to employment for the highly qualified in Armenia after the Velvet Revolution. In: Young, Jg. 28, H. 3, S. 259-274. DOI:10.1177/1103308819861793
Abstract
"In this article, we take a look at transitions to employment in Armenia for the highly qualified, focusing on students and graduates. Theoretically, we acknowledge the importance of insights from prior research, including the idea of the transition-to-work as a journey, with our research questions aimed at highlighting specific challenges facing Armenian youth following spatialized and sedentary transition pathways; moving abroad for work and entering the local labour market respectively. As evidence, we make use of interviews conducted with 51 young Armenians in the months that followed the Velvet Revolution of 2018. Discussion highlights factors that inhibit highly qualified youth from finding jobs at home, including perceptions of corruption in the workplace, difficulties associated with entering foreign labour markets and the salience of recent political events." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Navigating an Uncertain Labor Market in the UK: The Role of Structure and Agency in the Transition from School to Work (2020)
Zitatform
Schoon, Ingrid (2020): Navigating an Uncertain Labor Market in the UK: The Role of Structure and Agency in the Transition from School to Work. In: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Jg. 688, H. 1, S. 77-92. DOI:10.1177/0002716220905569
Abstract
"This article reviews the evidence on young people in the UK making the transition from school to work in a changing socioeconomic climate. The review draws largely on evidence from national representative panels and follows the lives of different age cohorts. I show that there has been a trend toward increasingly uncertain and precarious employment opportunities for young people since the 1970s, as well as persisting inequalities in educational and occupational attainment. The joint role of social structure and human agency in shaping youth transitions is discussed. I argue that current UK policies have forgotten about half of the population of young people who do not go to university, by not providing viable pathways and leaving more and more young people excluded from good jobs and employment prospects. Recommendations are made for policies aimed at supporting the vulnerable and at provision of career options for those not engaged in higher education." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Student Access to Apprenticeships: Evidence from a Vignette Experiment (2020)
Zitatform
Tobback, Ilse, Dieter Verhaest & Stijn Baert (2020): Student Access to Apprenticeships: Evidence from a Vignette Experiment. In: Industrial Relations, Jg. 59, H. 3, S. 435-465. DOI:10.1111/irel.12258
Abstract
"We identify the causal effects of student characteristics on the likelihood of being hired for an apprenticeship and explore the mechanisms underlying the employer’s decision. To this end, we perform a vignette experiment among human resources professionals in Belgium, focusing on less-qualified youth. Our results indicate that students with favorable educational records and students revealing being motivated are more likely to obtain an apprenticeship. Furthermore, we find that these characteristics are used by human resources professionals as signals of trainability, employability, and quit intentions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Persistent Effects of Initial Labor Market Conditions for Young Adults and Their Sources (2020)
Zitatform
Wachter, Till von (2020): The Persistent Effects of Initial Labor Market Conditions for Young Adults and Their Sources. In: The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Jg. 34, H. 4, S. 168-194. DOI:10.1257/jep.34.4.168
Abstract
"Unlucky young workers entering the labor market in recessions suffer a range of medium- to long-term consequences. This paper summarizes the findings of the growing empirical literature on this subject and uses it to assess economic models of career development. The literature finds large initial effects on earnings, labor supply, and wages that tend to fade after ten to fifteen years in the labor market, and that are accompanied by changes in occupation, job mobility, and employer characteristics. Adverse initial labor market entry also has persistent effects on a range of social outcomes, including timing and completed fertility, marriage and divorce, criminal activities, attitudes, and risky alcohol consumption. There is also evidence that early exposure to depressed labor market lowers health and raises mortality in middle age, patterns accompanied by a reopening of earnings gaps." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))