Die Arbeitsmarktsituation von LGBTQI-Personen
In den vergangenen zwei Jahrzehnten hat die gesellschaftliche Akzeptanz von LGBTQI-Personen (lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer, inter) deutlich zugenommen. Auch die rechtliche Gleichstellung am Arbeitsmarkt wurde durch das Allgemeine Gleichbehandlungsgesetz (2006) gestärkt. Dennoch erfahren LGBTQI-Personen im Arbeitsleben Diskriminierung sowie Nachteile bei Einkommen und Bildungsrendite.
In diesem Dossier finden Sie eine Zusammenstellung wissenschaftlicher Publikationen zur Arbeitsmarktsituation von LGBTQI-Personen in Deutschland und im Ausland.
Im Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
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Literaturhinweis
Sexual orientation and wage discrimination in France: the hidden side of the rainbow (2012)
Laurent, Thierry; Mihoubi, Ferhat;Zitatform
Laurent, Thierry & Ferhat Mihoubi (2012): Sexual orientation and wage discrimination in France. The hidden side of the rainbow. In: Journal of labor research, Jg. 33, H. 4, S. 487-527. DOI:10.1007/s12122-012-9145-x
Abstract
"This article is the first study to present an econometric evaluation of wage discrimination based on sexual orientation in the French labor market. Having identified same-sex couples using the French Employment Survey, we estimate the wage gap related to sexual orientation in the private and public sectors, in order to analyze whether or not lesbians and gays suffer a wage penalty. The results obtained show the existence of a wage penalty for homosexual male workers, as compared with their heterosexual counterparts, in both the private and public sectors; the magnitude of this discrimination varies from about -6.5 % in the private sector, to -5.5 % in the public sector. In the private sector, the wage penalty suffered by gay employees is higher for skilled workers than for the unskilled, and - in both sectors - the wage penalty is higher for older workers than for younger ones. As with many other countries, we do not find any evidence of the existence of a wage discrimination against lesbians." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Sexual orientation and occupational rank (2011)
Zitatform
Ahmed, Ali M., Lina Andersson & Mats Hammarstedt (2011): Sexual orientation and occupational rank. In: Economics Bulletin, Jg. 31, H. 3, S. 2422-2433.
Abstract
"This paper presents a study of differences in occupational rank between gay and heterosexual males as well as between lesbian and heterosexual females. We estimate different specifications of an ordered probit model on register data from Sweden. Our data consist of married heterosexual men and women and homosexual men and women living in civil unions. We find that homosexual men have a lower probability of working in a profession demanding a longer university education or a management profession than heterosexual men. In contrast, we find that homosexual women are more likely than heterosexual women to work in such professions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Are homosexuals discriminated against in the hiring process? (2011)
Zitatform
Ahmed, Ali, Lina Andersson & Mats Hammarstedt (2011): Are homosexuals discriminated against in the hiring process? (Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation. Working paper 2011,21), Uppsala, 29 S.
Abstract
"This paper presents the first field experiment on sexual orientation discrimination in the hiring process in the Swedish labor market. Job applications were sent to about 4,000 employers in 10 different occupations in Sweden. Gender and sexual orientation were randomly assigned to applications. The results show that sexual orientation discrimination exists in the Swedish labor market. The discrimination against gays and lesbian varies across different occupations and appears only in the private sector. The results also seem to suggest a new dimension of traditional gender roles; the gay applicant was discriminated against in typical male-dominated occupations whereas the lesbian applicant was discriminated against in typical female-dominated occupations. Thus, the results suggest that gays to some extent face the same obstacles on the labor market as heterosexual women" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Women's sexual orientation and labor market outcomes in Greece (2011)
Zitatform
Drydakis, Nick (2011): Women's sexual orientation and labor market outcomes in Greece. In: Feminist economics, Jg. 17, H. 1, S. 89-117. DOI:10.1080/13545701.2010.541858
Abstract
"This study is the first to use a field experiment to provide information on the relationship between women being lesbian and their hiring prospects in Greece. Data for 2007-8 support previous findings (in Canada and Austria) indicating that lesbians face hiring discrimination. The study finds that the estimated probability of lesbian applicants receiving an invitation for an interview is 27.7 percent lower than that for heterosexual women applicants. More importantly, the study shows that entry wage differentials assigned are inconsistent with the ascendant empirical claims (from the United States, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom) that lesbians have higher market earnings. The study concludes that the negative effect of lesbian sexual orientation on wage outcomes in Greece is 6.1 percent. Given that legal actions in Greece have the potential to affect sexual-orientation minorities, it is important to understand the relationships between sexual orientation and the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Going diverse: Innovative answers to future challenges: gender and diversity perspectives in science, technology and business (2011)
Leicht-Scholten, Carmen; Ihsen, Susanne; Koall, Iris; Breuer, Elke; Köllen, Thomas; Wolffram, Andrea; Main, Peter; Breuer, Elke; Petersen, Alexia; Connolly, Sara ; Petersen, Stephan; Fuchs, Stefan ; Rees, Teresa; Hahmann, Julia ; Schiebinger, Londa ; Hofmeister, Heather; Schiederig, Katharina; Hoolinshead, Katharine; Weheliye, Asli-Juliya; Tulodetzki, Nathalie; Bruchhagen, Verena; Schlücker, Karin; Gebauer, Sabrina; Schweer, Martin K. W.; Ahmed, Saher; Takagi, Junko; Hantschel, Victoria; Vaske, Ann-Kathrin; Dyer, Jennifer; Vinkenburg, Claartje;Zitatform
Leicht-Scholten, Carmen, Elke Breuer, Nathalie Tulodetzki & Andrea Wolffram (Hrsg.) (2011): Going diverse: Innovative answers to future challenges. Gender and diversity perspectives in science, technology and business. Opladen: Budrich UniPress, 239 S.
Abstract
"Aktuelle wirtschaftliche, soziale und politische Bedingungen fordern Organisationen und wissenschaftliche Institutionen in verstärktem Maße heraus, auf Anforderungen wie demographischen Wandel, Globalisierung oder Fachkräftemangel wettbewerbsfähig und innovativ zu reagieren. Universitäten und Unternehmen konkurrieren dabei gleichermaßen um qualifiziertes Fachpersonal. Da diverse Teams das Potenzial bieten neue und innovative Lösungsansätze zu erarbeiten, ist es unerlässlich, Gender- und Diversity-Perspektiven als wichtige Elemente der Organisations- und Personalentwicklung zu integrieren. Dieser englischsprachige Sammelband stellt unterschiedliche theoretische und praktische Ansätze, Best Practice-Beispiele sowie wichtige Aspekte des Gender und Diversity Managements in Organisationen vor." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)
Contents:
Framework:
Teresa Rees: Women and Science in the European Union (15-25);
Katharina Schiederig: Institutionalising diversity in transnational companies - trade unions and international framework agreements (27-38);
Organisational and cultural change
Iris Koall, Verena Bruchhagen: Managing gender & diversity changes organisations?! (39-52);
Carmen Leicht-Scholten: Meeting global challenges - gender and diversity as drivers for a change of scientific culture (53-64);
Susanne Ihsen, Sabrina Gebauer, Victoria Hantschel: Gender and diversity concepts as drive for institutional change in scientific institutions (65-75);
Diversity perspectives
Junko Takagi: The challenge of diversity - examples from France (77-87);
Asli-Juliya Weheliye: Changing minds, changing attitudes - the role of the individual in diversity change provesses (89-98);
Thomas Köllen: The contribution of diversity management to create a supportive working climate for gays and lesbians (99-108);
Female careers in academia
Ann-Kathrin Vaske, Martin K. W. Schweer: Women's and men's implicit career theories - prospects and barriers in women's professional development (109-121);
Heather Hofmeister, Julia Hahmann: She gets less - gender differences in resource allocation to new professors at RWTH Aachen University (123-136);
Karin Schlücker: Exploring diversity in academic careers - on methodological and theoretical challenges (137-147);
Andrea Wolffram: Highly skilled female migration in an enlarged Europe - the case of women scientists at German Universities (149-160);
Work life balance
Londa Schiebinger: Dual career academic couples - university stratgies, opportunities, policies (161-174);
Sara Connolly, Stefan Fuchs, Claartje Vinkenburg: Work-life-balance in academia - evidence from tow technical universities (175-193);
Practical approaches
Elke Breuer, Carmen Leicht-Scholten: Gender-oriented human resources development in international cooperation - the mentoring programme TANDEMplusIDEA as a model of best practice (195-208);
Jennifer Dyer, Peter Main, Saher Ahmed: Katharine Hollinshead: JUNO code for practice - advancing women's careers in higher education (209-220);
Alexia Petersen, Stephan Petersen: Preparing students of science, technology, and business for a culturally diverse workplace - practical approaches and best practise recommendations in transferring key intercultural communication skills (221-232). -
Literaturhinweis
Sexual orientation and household decision making: same-sex couples' balance of power and labor supply choices (2011)
Zitatform
Oreffice, Sonia (2011): Sexual orientation and household decision making. Same-sex couples' balance of power and labor supply choices. In: Labour economics, Jg. 18, H. 2, S. 145-158. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2010.09.003
Abstract
"This study estimates the effect of intra-household-bargaining on gay and lesbian couples' labor supplies, in order to determine how homosexual and heterosexual decision making compare, in a collective-household framework. Data from the 2000 US Census show that couples of all types exhibit a significant response to bargaining power shifts, as measured by age and non-labor-income differences between partners. Among gay, lesbian, and heterosexual cohabiting couples, a relatively young or rich partner has more bargaining power and supplies less labor, the opposite being true for his/her mate. Among married couples, the older spouse is instead more powerful, or the richer. No such patterns are found among same-sex roommates." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Pride and prejudice: employment discrimination against openly gay men in the United States (2011)
Zitatform
Tilcsik, András (2011): Pride and prejudice. Employment discrimination against openly gay men in the United States. In: American Journal of Sociology, Jg. 117, H. 2, S. 586-626. DOI:10.1086/661653
Abstract
"This article presents the first large-scale audit study of discrimination against openly gay men in the United States. Pairs of fictitious résumés were sent in response to 1,769 job postings in seven states. One résumé in each pair was randomly assigned experience in a gay campus organization, and the other reésumé was assigned a control organization. Two main findings have emerged. First, in some but not all states, there was significant discrimination against the fictitious applicants who appeared to be gay. This geographic variation in the level of discrimination appears to reflect regional differences in attitudes and antidiscrimination laws. Second, employers who emphasized the importance of stereotypically male heterosexual traits were particularly likely to discriminate against openly gay men. Beyond these particular findings, this study advances the audit literature more generally by covering multiple regions and by highlighting how audit techniques may be used to identify stereotypes that affect employment decisions in real labor markets." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Sexual orientation and earnings: a register data-based approach to identify homosexuals (2010)
Zitatform
Ahmed, Ali M. & Mats Hammarstedt (2010): Sexual orientation and earnings. A register data-based approach to identify homosexuals. In: Journal of population economics, Jg. 23, H. 3, S. 835-849. DOI:10.1007/s00148-009-0265-4
Abstract
"This paper examines earnings differentials between homo- and heterosexual individuals by identifying sexual orientation with the help of information from register data. Register data enable us to avoid the misclassifications of sexual orientation often mentioned as a potential bias in survey-based studies. The results show that gay men are at an earnings disadvantage as compared to male heterosexuals while the earnings differential between lesbians and heterosexual women is very small. Our results are in line with results from previous research but are more reliable since we use a more reliable measure of sexual orientation than previous research." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Benachteiligung von Trans*Personen, insbesondere im Arbeitsleben: Expertise im Auftrag der Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes (2010)
Franzen, Jannik; Sauer, Arn;Zitatform
Franzen, Jannik & Arn Sauer (2010): Benachteiligung von Trans*Personen, insbesondere im Arbeitsleben. Expertise im Auftrag der Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes. Berlin, 117 S.
Abstract
"Trans*Menschen1 überschreiten die in westlichen Gesellschaften fest verankerte Einteilung aller Menschen in zwei Geschlechter, indem sie ihr Geschlecht verändern bzw. wechseln. Systematisch erhobene Daten zur Benachteiligung von Trans*Personen in Deutschland gibt es nicht. Über ihre soziale Situation ist abseits des medizinischen Diskurses und der Beratungsarbeit sehr wenig bekannt. Internationale Studien belegen, dass Trans*Personen in allen Bereichen des täglichen Lebens, insbesondere auch im Arbeitsleben, massiven Diskriminierungen ausgesetzt sind. Diese reichen von Benachteiligung beim Zugang zum Arbeitsmarkt und bei Karrierechancen über Ablehnung und Belästigungen bis hin zu Gewalt. Trans*Personen sind überdurchschnittlich häufig von Arbeitsverlust, Arbeitslosigkeit sowie Armut betroffen und arbeiten sehr oft unter ihren Qualifikationen. Sie berichten von transphoben Verhaltensweisen von Kolleg_innen2 und Vorgesetzten sowie struktureller Benachteiligung durch den institutionalisierten medizinischen und juristischen Umgang mit Transgeschlechtlichkeit. Laut EU-Rechtsprechung sind Trans*Personen im Antidiskriminierungsrecht unter dem Merkmal „Geschlecht“ geschützt; in Deutschland zusätzlich unter der Sonderregelung der „sexuellen Identität“. Mangels Präzedenzfällen besteht Rechtsunsicherheit über den Diskriminierungsschutz im AGG von Trans*Menschen in Deutschland. Es bedarf der breiten und nachhaltigen Sensibilisierung und Fortbildung in Bezug auf die soziale, rechtliche und Diskriminierungssituation von Trans*Personen u.a. in allen Ebenen von Unternehmen, Organisationen und Ämtern, im Gesundheitswesen sowie im Bereich der Rechtsprechung und juristischen Beratung. Dazu zählen Gender Mainstreaming und Antidiskriminierungsstrategien, die eine Vielfalt geschlechtlicher Identitäten und Ausdrucksweisen zugrunde legen und explizit thematisieren. Bei der Konzeption und Implementierung von Gleichstellungsmaßnahmen ist die Expertise von Trans*Organisationen unerlässlich." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Geschlechtergerechtigkeit: Festschrift für Heide Pfarr (2010)
Zitatform
Hohmann-Dennhardt, Christine, Marita Körner & Reingard Zimmer (Hrsg.) (2010): Geschlechtergerechtigkeit. Festschrift für Heide Pfarr. Baden-Baden: Nomos, 545 S.
Abstract
"Die Festschrift für Heide Pfarr unterscheidet sich von vielen anderen durch die Konzentration auf eines der zentralen Forschungsfelder der Jubilarin: Geschlechtergerechtigkeit, insbesondere im Arbeitsleben. Alle Beiträge der 40 Autorinnen und Autoren sind diesem Leitthema verpflichtet. Unter sieben verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten, nähern sich JuristInnen, aber auch SoziologInnen, PolitologInnen und ÖkonomInnen der Problematik: Neben historischen Vorbildern geht es u.a. um Geschlechtergerechtigkeit auf dem Arbeitsmarkt (9 Beiträge), Antidiskriminierung und Gleichstellung (11 Beiträge) und die Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie (7 Beiträge). Das Werk umfasst einerseits Debatten, die bereits seit geraumer Zeit geführt werden, wie bspw. Gleichstellung der Geschlechter in der Privatwirtschaft oder Entgeltgleichheit, thematisiert wird jedoch auch die Notwendigkeit einer stärkeren Repräsentation von Frauen in Aufsichtsräten, geringfügige Beschäftigung von Frauen als prekäre Arbeitsform oder der Einfluss des Steuerrechts auf die Berufstätigkeit von Müttern. Der Blick über die Landesgrenzen (5 Beiträge) verdeutlicht die europäische und internationale Relevanz des Themas. Insgesamt bietet die Festschrift einen eindrucksvollen Überblick über die derzeitige Diskussion zum Thema Geschlechtergerechtigkeit." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Gemeinsamer Bericht der Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes und der in ihrem Zuständigkeitsbereich betroffenen Beauftragten der Bundesregierung und des Deutschen Bundestages: Unterrichtung durch die Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes (2010)
Zitatform
(2010): Gemeinsamer Bericht der Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes und der in ihrem Zuständigkeitsbereich betroffenen Beauftragten der Bundesregierung und des Deutschen Bundestages. Unterrichtung durch die Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes. (Verhandlungen des Deutschen Bundestages. Drucksachen 17/4325 (20.12.2010)), 192 S.
Abstract
"Die Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes (ADS) und die in ihrem Zuständigkeitsbereich betroffenen Beauftragten der Bundesregierung und des Deutschen Bundestages legen hiermit dem Deutschen Bundestag einen Bericht über Benachteiligungen aus den in § 1 AGG genannten Gründen vor und geben Empfehlungen zur Beseitigung und Vermeidung dieser Benachteiligungen. Die ADS hat sich entschlossen, den ersten Bericht zum Schwerpunkt 'Mehrdimensionale Diskriminierung' vorzulegen. Bei der im vorliegenden Bericht im Mittelpunkt stehenden mehrdimensionalen Diskriminierung handelt es sich aus Sicht der ADS um ein politisch und wissenschaftlich aktuelles sowie ein für die Antidiskriminierungsarbeit überaus wichtiges Thema.
Einer umfassenden wissenschaftlichen Klärung noch offener Fragen zu dem Konzept 'Mehrdimensionale Diskriminierung' widmen sich zwei im Auftrag der ADS erstellte Expertisen, die als Annex des vorliegenden Berichts vorgestellt werden. Die Studien nähern sich dem Thema einmal aus theoretischer und juristischer sowie einmal aus empirischer und praxisbezogener Perspektive." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku) -
Literaturhinweis
Sexual orientation discrimination in the labour market (2009)
Zitatform
Drydakis, Nick (2009): Sexual orientation discrimination in the labour market. In: Labour economics, Jg. 16, H. 4, S. 364-372. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2008.12.003
Abstract
"This research examines the possible discrimination faced by gay men compared to heterosexuals when applying for jobs in the Greek private sector. This issue was addressed through the observation of employer hiring decisions. Mailing pairs of curriculum vitae, distinguished only by the sexual orientation of the applicants, led to the observation that gay men faced a significantly lower chance of receiving an invitation for an interview. However, in cases where employers called applicants back, the wages offered did not differ significantly between gay and heterosexual applicants. Nevertheless, there is substantial evidence to suggest that discrimination based on sexual orientation does exist in the Greek labour market, and at alarmingly high levels." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Sexual orientation and earnings: evidence from the ISSP (2009)
Zitatform
Heineck, Guido (2009): Sexual orientation and earnings. Evidence from the ISSP. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 16, H. 13, S. 1351-1354. DOI:10.1080/13504850701367353
Abstract
Es gibt einige wenige Studien, die Einkommensunterschiede für nichtheterosexuelle Personen belegen. Die Studie, die sich auf ISSP-Daten stützt, leistet einen Beitrag zu diesem Forschungsfeld. Während die Einkommen von Lesben und Bisexuellen nicht betroffen sind, zeigen die Ergebnisse einer Mincer-Regression mit Selektionskorrektur Einkommenseinbußen von 17-20 Prozent für schwule Männer. Eine Oaxaca-Dekomposition zeigt, dass zwei Drittel dieses Unterschieds auf Diskriminierung zurückzuführen sind. (IAB)
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Literaturhinweis
Labour force status and sexual orientation (2009)
Leppel, Karen;Zitatform
Leppel, Karen (2009): Labour force status and sexual orientation. In: Economica, Jg. 76, H. 301, S. 197-207. DOI:10.1111/j.1468-0335.2007.00676.x
Abstract
"This study explores the probabilities of being employed, unemployed, and not in the labour force, for men and women in same-sex couples and married and unmarried opposite-sex couples. Same-sex partners were more likely to be unemployed than married opposite-sex partners but less likely than unmarried opposite-sex partners. Laws prohibiting sexual orientation discrimination had positive and larger effects on unemployment for same-sex partners than for other partners. The presence of young children increased the probability of being out of the labour force more for male same-sex partners than for other men, and less for female same-sex partners than for other women" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Educational attainment and the lesbian wage premium (2008)
Zitatform
Daneshvary, Nasser, C. Jeffrey Waddoups & Bradley S. Wimmer (2008): Educational attainment and the lesbian wage premium. In: Journal of labor research, Jg. 29, H. 4, S. 365-379. DOI:10.1007/s12122-007-9024-z
Abstract
"This paper provides insight into the wage gap between lesbians and heterosexual women. Using data from the 2000 Decennial Census, we find a lesbian premium that equals approximately 10% for women without a bachelor's degree, and is nearly non-existent for women with higher levels of education. These findings are consistent with proposition that the gap between lesbians' and heterosexual women's commitment to the labor market narrows at higher levels of education. We also find that controls for industry and occupation exert only a small effect on the gap between lesbian and heterosexual women's wages." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gay glass ceilings (2006)
Zitatform
Frank, Jeff (2006): Gay glass ceilings. In: Economica, Jg. 73, H. 291, S. 485-508. DOI:10.1111/j.1468-0335.2006.00516.x
Abstract
"The UK Association of University Teachers conducted a 2000/01 survey of staff in six British universities to determine the experience of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) employees holding academic and non-academic appointments. We analyse the salaries and ranks held by LGB individuals, guided by a new model of the interaction of 'tastes for discrimination' and the decision to 'come out'. We find no evidence that LGB staff suffer any disadvantage in salaries relative to heterosexuals. We do find evidence that gay/bisexual men suffer from glass ceilings comparable to those faced by heterosexual women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Effects of sexual preferences on earnings in the Netherlands (2004)
Plug, Erik; Berkhout, Peter;Zitatform
Plug, Erik & Peter Berkhout (2004): Effects of sexual preferences on earnings in the Netherlands. In: Journal of population economics, Jg. 17, H. 1, S. 117-131.
Abstract
"A small literature suggests that bisexual and homosexual workers earn less than their heterosexual fellow workers and that a discriminating labor market is partly to blame. In this paper we examine whether sexual preferences affect earnings in the beginning of working careers in the Netherlands. We find (i) that young and highly educated gay male workers earn about 3 percent less than heterosexual men; (ii) that similarly qualified lesbian workers earn about 4 percent more than their heterosexual female coworkers; (iii) that in terms of earnings, bisexual workers are more comparable to heterosexual workers; and (iv) that among homosexual workers the gender gap is not observed. From this we conclude that the Dutch labor market does not discriminate on the basis of both sexual orientation and gender in entry level jobs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Sexual orientation discrimination in hiring (2003)
Zitatform
Weichselbaumer, Doris (2003): Sexual orientation discrimination in hiring. In: Labour economics, Jg. 10, H. 6, S. 629-642. DOI:10.1016/S0927-5371(03)00074-5
Abstract
"Little research has been done to examine discrimination against gays and lesbians in the labor market. Wage regressions have documented lower incomes for gays but repeatedly showed higher incomes for lesbians. The results concerning lesbian women are striking but can be reconciled with the existence of labor market discrimination, however. Problems like sample selection and unobserved heterogeneity - in particular, lesbians' violation of stereotypical female gender roles - might be responsible for their higher earnings. To investigate whether discrimination against lesbians actually does exist, a labor market experiment is conducted. Job applications of candidates, who are equivalent in their human capital but differ in their sexual orientation, are sent out in response to job advertisements. Furthermore, to test whether increased masculinity affects labor market outcomes, the applicants differ in their perceived gender identity. While results show a strong negative effect for lesbian orientation, gender identity does not have a significant overall impact on hiring chances." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))