Abstract

"Dieser Bericht hat zum Ziel, die Debatte über das Arbeitskräfteangebot auf zweierlei Weise aus der Geschlechterperspektive zu beleuchten. Erstens durch Rückblick auf einige wichtige, auf nationalstaatlicher Ebene vorgenommene politische Reformen der Systeme der sozialen Sicherung und der damit verbundenen Arbeitsmarktprogramme, die darauf abzielen, niedrige Einkommensgruppen in Beschäftigung zu bringen, und bei welchen es, soweit sich die politischen Ziele auf das Thema 'Arbeit lohnend machen' beziehen, hauptsächlich darum geht, Beschäftigung finanziell attraktiver zu machen als den Bezug von Sozialleistungen. In dieser Diskussion prüfen wir, ob die Politik die Geschlechtergleichstellung allgemein berücksichtigt (Gender Mainstreaming), und welche geschlechtsbezogenen Auswirkungen diese Reformen voraussichtlich haben werden. Zweitens wenden wir uns den allgemeineren Anreizen und Barrieren zu, mit welchen diejenigen - nach wie vor zumeist Frauen - konfrontiert sind, die in Haushalten mit kleinen Kindern hauptsächlich für die Betreuung zuständig sind. Dabei gilt unser besonderes Augenmerk der Situation von Müttern in Haushalten mit niedrigem Einkommen (Steuern und Sozialleistungen, aktive Arbeitsmarktpolitik, Kinderbetreuung, etc.). In Abschnitt 2 prüfen wir die Regelungen für Mutterschafts- und Elternurlaub im Hinblick auf die berufliche Integration von Müttern und Vätern. Abschnitt 3 hat die Auswirkungen von Elternurlaub oder längerer Arbeitsmarktabwesenheit zur Kinderbetreuung auf die Teilnahmevoraussetzungen für aktive Arbeitsmarktmaßnahmen und anderen Schulungsregelungen zum Gegenstand. Der Ausbau der Kinderbetreuung als entscheidende soziale Infrastruktur zur Beschäftigungsförderung der Eltern wird in Abschnitt 4 untersucht. Die Schlussfolgerungen daraus werden im Abschnitt 5 gezogen. Dabei kommen auch für die Nachfrageseite relevante Punkte hinsichtlich der Arbeitsplatzqualität zur Sprache, von denen abhängt, ob diejenigen, die in Niedrigeinkommenshaushalten hauptsächlich für die Betreuung zuständig sind (in der Regel die Mütter), ihr Beschäftigungsverhältnis langfristig aufrecht erhalten können." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Djurdjevic, Dragana (2005): Unemployment and under-employment. The case of Switzerland. In: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Volkswirtschaft und Statistik, Jg. 141, H. 1, S. 23-70.

Abstract

"In dem Betrag werden die Arbeitslosigkeit und die weitere Einkommensentwicklung der Arbeitslosen analysiert. Auf Basis von informativen administrativen Panel-Daten wird ein diskretes Hazard Modell für den Austritt von verschiedenen Erwerbszuständen geschätzt. Die geschätzten Ergebnisse belegen die Existenz sozialer Randgruppen. Beispielsweise befinden sich Frauen, Ausländer und Geringqualifizierte verstärkt in schlechten Arbeitssituation oder sind in besonderem Maße von Erwerbsinstabilität betroffen. Diese Erwerbsinstabilität scheint hauptsächlich mit einem Mangel an Qualifikation verbunden zu sein. Im Gegenteil haben Männer, Jüngere und Hochqualifizierte mehr Chancen eine Beschäftigung wieder zu finden. Falls sie schlecht bezahlt (im Vergleich zu ihrem vorherigen Lohn) sind, ist es hauptsächlich für vorübergehende Perioden." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Engelbrech, Gerhard & Mark Josenhans (2005): Betriebliche Ausbildung und geschlechtsspezifische berufliche Segregation in den 1990er Jahren. Einkommen von Männern und Frauen beim Berufseintritt. In: R. Gaubitsch & R. Sturm (Hrsg.) (2005): Beruf und Beruflichkeit : Diskussionsbeiträge aus der deutschsprachigen Berufsbildungsforschung (AMS report, 46), S. 69-89.

Abstract

Zwar steigt seit Beginn der 1990er Jahre der quantitative Anteil berufstätiger gut ausgebildeter Frauen am Arbeitsmarkt, doch sind sie in höheren Positionen weiterhin unterrepräsentiert, und es bestehen weiterhin geschlechtsspezifische Einkommensdiskrepanzen. Für diese unterschiedliche berufliche Integration von Männern und Frauen wird nach neuen Erklärungsansätzen gesucht. Sie berücksichtigen die stärkere Bildungsbeteilung junger Frauen, die veränderte betriebliche Wahrnehmung von jungen Frauen und die Reaktionen der jungen Männer auf den gesellschaftlichen und strukturellen Wandel. Dazu wird Datenmaterial aus einer Längs- und Querschnittstudie der Bundesagentur für Arbeit über den Berufseinstieg von Absolventen und Absolventinnen im Jahr 2001 nach dem Abschluss ihrer betrieblichen Berufsausbildung im Jahr 2000 und im Vergleich zu den 1980er und 1990er Jahren herangezogen. Berufseintritt, Arbeitslosigkeit, Tendenz zu männer- bzw. frauendominierten Berufen und geschlechtsspezifische Einkommensunterschiede innerhalb und zwischen den Berufsgruppen in Ost- und Westdeutschland werden quantitativ dargestellt und analysiert. Dabei zeigt sich u.a., dass geschlechtsspezifische Einkommensunterschiede bereits beim Berufseintritt entstehen und vertikale Einkommensunterschiede sich verfestigen. (IAB)

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Lentz, Rasmus & Torben Tranæs (2005): Marriage, wealth, and unemployment duration. A gender asymmetry puzzle. (IZA discussion paper 1607), Bonn, 16 S.

Abstract

"This note presents evidence of the following gender asymmetry: the job-finding effort of married men and women is affected by the income of their spouses in opposite directions. For women, spouse income influences job finding negatively, just as own wealth does: the more the man earns and the wealthier the woman is, the longer it takes for her to find a job. The contrary is the case for men, where spouse income affects job finding positively: the more the wife earns, the faster the husband finds a job. This is so despite the fact that greater own wealth also prolongs unemployment spells for men. These findings are hard to reconcile with the traditional economic model of the family." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Tomlinson, J., W. Olsen, D. Neff, K. Purdam & S. Mehta (2005): Examining the potential for women returners to work in areas of high occupational gender segregation. Final report to the DTI. Manchester, 106 S.

Abstract

"The aim of this project was to review the employment and earnings potential of women who return to employment after a period of caring for children or other family members. The report includes analysis of the literature and statistical data on women's employment histories, the kinds of jobs they do and what they are paid. It also looks at women's qualifications and skills and the way in which their employment reflects their skills and explores employers attitudes to women returners and the training opportunities available to them." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Vieira, Jose A. Cabral, Ana Rute Cardoso & Miguel Portela (2005): Gender segregation and the wage gap in Portugal. An analysis at the establishment level. In: Journal of Economic Inequality, Jg. 3, H. 2, S. 145-168. DOI:10.1007/s10888-005-4495-8

Abstract

"Using a large linked employer-employee data set, this paper aims at quantifying the trend in worker segregation at the establishment level and its impact on wages in Portugal over a fifteen year period. We concentrate on the gender dimension, to answer the questions: What is the level of gender segregation across establishments in the Portuguese labor market and how has it evolved over time? What is the impact of segregation on wages? Is that impact different for men and women? Systematic and random components of segregation are computed. We use standard wage decomposition techniques to evaluate the impact of the composition of the labor force at the establishment level on wages. The results reveal a high degree of systematic gender segregation. A higher proportion of females in the establishment lowers females' wages while, on the contrary, it raises males' wages. The evidence gathered is consistent with the taste-based model of employer behavior and with the theory of sorting of workers across establishments based on their productivity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brückner, Hannah (2004): Gender inequality in the life course. Social change and stability in West Germany 1975-1995. (The life course and aging), New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 158 S.

Abstract

"How do women fare in a society that is characterized by a set of institutions that promote income stability over the life course and thereby maintain and even amplify status difference? Using recently issued public files of social security records with longitudinal earnings data of well over half a million persons, this book describes gender inequality in earnings and labour market participation in Germany between 1975 and 1995. Because of the advanced industrial base of Germany, its relevance to other nations at the high end of production and consumer indices becomes apparent." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Albrecht, James, Anders Björklund & Susan Vroman (2003): Is There a Glass Ceiling in Sweden? In: Journal of labor economics, Jg. 21, H. 1, S. 145-177. DOI:10.1086/344126

Abstract

"Using 1998 data, we show that the gender log wage gap in Sweden increases throughout the wage distribution and accelerates in the upper tail. We interpret this as a strong glass ceiling effect. We use quantile regression decompositions to examine whether this pattern can be ascribed primarily to gender differences in labor market characteristics or in the rewards to those characteristics. Even after extensive controls for gender differences in age, education (both level and field), sector, industry, and occupation, we find that the glass ceiling effect we see in the raw data persists to a considerable extent." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hakim, Catherine (2003): Lifestyle preferences versus patriarchal values. Causal and non-causal attitudes. In: Changing life patterns in Western industrial societies, Jg. 8, S. 69-91. DOI:10.1016/S1040-2608(03)08004-3

Abstract

"There is solid evidence, from longitudinal studies such as the NLS and PSID, of the significant long-term impact of values and life goals on occupational attainment and earnings. So far, these findings have not been incorporated into sociological and economic theory. Preference theory does this, identifying the social and economic context in which values and attitudes can become important predictors of women's (and men's) behaviour. A theoretical and methodological distinction between causal and non-causal attitudes and values is made, illustrated by data on lifestyle preferences and patriarchal values from comparative surveys in Britain and Spain. The results show that lifestyle preferences have a major impact on women's choices between family work and employment, whereas patriarchal values are only tenuously linked to behaviour." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Allen, Jim & Karin Sanders (2002): Gender gap in earnings at the industry level. In: The European Journal of Women's Studies, Jg. 9, H. 2, S. 163-180.

Abstract

"In this article the authors seek an answer to the question: does the percentage of women working in an industry have an effect on earnings distinct from the effect of sex at the individual level? On the basis of the 'comparable worth' approach, the authors hypothesized that, controlling for education, experience and sex, the percentage of women working in an industry would have a negative effect on earnings. This hypothesis was tested by performing multi-level analysis using data from 12 countries. The hypothesis was confirmed: the multi-level analysis showed a significant negative effect of the percentage of women in an industry on individual earnings, when individual characteristics were controlled for. This effect applied equally formen and women working in an industry. Part, though not all, of the effect could be accounted for by the fact that femaledominated industries are less unionized and more characterized by small firms than male-dominated industries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Padavic, Irene & Barbara Reskin (2002): Women and men at work. (Sociology for a new century), Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 217 S.

Abstract

"The Second Edition of this best selling book provides a comprehensive examination of the role that gender plays in work environments. This book differs from others by comparing women's and men's work status, addressing contemporary issues within a historical perspective, incorporating comparative material from other countries, recognizing differences in the experiences of women and men from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Relying on both qualitative and quantitative data, the authors seek to link social scientific ideas about workers' lives, sex inequality, and gender to the real-world workplace. This new edition contains updated statistics, timely cartoons, and presents new scholarship in the field. It also provides a renewed focus on reasons for variability in inequality across workplaces. In sum, the second edition of Women and Men at Work presents a contemporary perspective to the field, with relevant comparative and historical insights that will draw readers in and connect them to the wider concern of making sense of our dramatically changing world." (Publisher information, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Newell, Andrew & Barry Reilly (2001): The gender pay gap in the transition from communism: some empirical evidence. In: Economic Systems, Jg. 25, H. 4, S. 287-304. DOI:10.1016/s0939-3625(01)00028-0

Abstract

"This short paper investigates the gender pay gap in a number of former communist countries of eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. The main findings are that, in general, the gender pay gap has not exhibited an upward tendency over the transitional period to which available data relate. Most of the gender pay gap is ascribed to the ‘unexplained’ component using conventional decompositions and this may partly be attributable to the proxy measure for labour force experience used in this study. Quantile regression analysis indicates that in all but one country, the ceteris paribus gender pay gap rises as we move up the wage distribution." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2001 Elsevier) ((en))

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Gustafsson, Siv S. & Daniele E. Meulders (Hrsg.) (2000): Gender and the labour market. Econometric evidence of obstacles to achieving gender equality. (Applied econometrics association), Basingstoke: Macmillan, 336 S.

Abstract

"The purpose of Gender and the Labour Market is to analyze the remaining obstacles in achieving gender equality. The first chapters present different aspects of the gender earnings gap. Different counteries are studied and special emphasis is made on particular sectors and occupations. The next chapters deal with the postponement of first birth by educated women, the non-cooperative behavior in time use, gender differences in job and working mobility, transitions between employment status, discriminations contained in tax systems and poverty rates of single parent households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Joshi, Heather, Pierella Paci, Gerald Makepeace & Jane Waldfogel (1998): Unequal pay for women and men. Evidence from the British birth cohort studies. Cambridge u.a.: MIT Press, 181 S.

Abstract

Wie hat sich der Einkommensabstand zwischen Männern und Frauen zwischen 1978 und 1991 in Großbritannien verändert und welchen Einfluß hatte darauf die britische Equal pay-Politik? Die differenzierte Analyse dieser Fragen auf der Basis von Paneluntersuchungen der Geburtsjahrgänge 1946 und 1958 führt u.a. zu folgenden wesentlichen Ergebnissen: Der Lohnabstand zu den Männern ist im untersuchten Zeitraum für Frauen, die nicht wegen Mutterschaft ihre Erwerbstätigkeit unterbrochen haben und die auch nicht in Teilzeit arbeiten, geringer geworden. Für Frauen, die nicht in diesem für Männer normalen Arbeitsverhältnis ohne Berufspausen tätig sind, hat sich die Einkommensdifferenz sowohl zu den Männern wie auch zu der erstgenannten Frauengruppe aber vergrößert. Die Ursachen für beide Phänomene werden im einzelnen untersucht. (IAB)

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Waldfogel, Jane (1997): The Effect of Children on Women's Wages. In: American Sociological Review, Jg. 62, H. 2, S. 209-217.

Abstract

Mit Hilfe der Daten des 1968-1988 National Longitudinal Survey werden die Ursachen für Lohnunterschiede zwischen amerikanischen Müttern und kinderlosen Frauen untersucht, die nicht nur auf unterschiedlich lange Berufserfahrung zurückzuführen sind. (IAB)

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Baron, James N. & Andrew E. Newman (1990): For what it's worth. Organizations, occupations, and the value of work done by women and nonwhites. In: American Sociological Review, Jg. 55, H. 2, S. 155-175. DOI:10.2307/2095624

Abstract

"Economic penalties against jobs employing disproportionate numbers of women or nonwhites vary across organizational context and occupational type. Analyses of prescribed pay rates for jobs in the California state civil service in 1985 suggest that work done disproportionately by women and nonwhites is devalued most in positions that are older, not represented by activist unions, have ambiguous performance criteria, or are most generic across organizational settings. We conclude that the extent of ascription depends on propensities toward devaluation in a given setting, prospects for collective action by disadvantaged groups, and the organizational costs and benefits (economic and otherwise) of recalibrating job worth to achieve pay equity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Goldin, Claudia (1980): The Historical Evolution of Female Earnings Functions and Occupations. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 0529), Cambridge, Mass, 38 S.

Abstract

"Of all the changes in the history of women's market work, few have been more impressive than the rapid emergence and feminization of the clerical sector and the related decline in manufacturing employment for women. Although a century ago few women were clerical workers, as early as 1920 22% of all employed non-farm women were, and about 50% of all clerical workers were women. Employment for women in the clerical sector expanded at five times the annual rate in manufacturing from 1890 to 1930, and during the same period of time wages for female clerical workers fell relative to those in manufacturing. This paper explores the underlying causes of these dramatic sectoral shifts by estimating the relationship between earnings and experience for manufacturing and clerical workers from 1888 to 1940. It is seen that earnings profiles for employment in manufacturing rose steeply with experience and peaked early, while those in the clerical sector were much flatter and did not peak within the relevant range. Returns to off-job training and depreciation with age and with time away from the labor force also differed between these occupations. A model of sectoral shift is developed in which workers choose occupations and therefore the time path of training on the basis of their life-cycle labor force participation and their consumption value of education. The coefficients from the earnings function estimations are used to demonstrate that the decline in the relative wage of clerical to manufacturing work from 1890 to 1930 can be explained by such a model, Finally, it is shown that a sizable percentage of the difference in the growth of female employment in the manufacturing and clerical sectors can be explained by various labor supply factors." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))