Abstract

Thema der Mitteilung ist das Lohngefälle zwischen Männern und Frauen in der Europäischen Union. Es wird als dauerhaftes und komplexes Phänömen beschrieben, welches durch Unterschiede bei den einzelnen Personen, beim Beschäftigungstyp oder bei den Unternehmen bedingt sein kann, und das zudem auf geschlechtsspezifische Segregation auf dem Arbeitsmarkt, auf institutionelle Faktoren und soziale Normen, Traditionen und Stereotype zurückgeführt werden kann. Die Gleichstellung zwischen Frauen und Männern sowie Nichtdiskriminierung sind Teil der Grundprinzipien der Europäischen Union. Dem zufolge ist die Bekämpung des Lohngefälles eine politische Priorität für die Europäische Union. Vier Aktionsfelder werden genannt: 1. Die Analyse der Möglichkeiten zur Verbesserung des rechtlichen Rahmens und seiner Umsetzung; 2. Die volle Ausschöpfung der Europäische Strategie für Wachstum und Beschäftigung; 3. Werbung für Gleichheit des Arbeitsentgelts bei den Arbeitgebern; 4. Die Unterstützung des Austauschs bewährter Verfahren auf Gemeinschaftsebene. Zudem wird gefordert, die Analyse dieses Phänomens voranzutreiben, um gezielt Wege zu benennen, um das Lohngefälle zwischen Männern und Frauen zu verringern. Der Annex dokumentiert die rechtlichen Regelungen, beschreibt den Eurostat-Indikator für das Lohngefälle, gibt einen Überblick über die Statistik und führt für einzelne Mitgliedsländer Beispiele für politische Maßnahmen zur Bekämpfung des Lohngefälles zwischen Männern und Frauen auf. (IAB)

Abstract

"The Global Employment Trends for Women Brief 2007 focuses on whether the tendency toward increased participation has continued more recently and whether women have found enough decent and productive jobs to really enable them to use their potential in the labour market and achieve economic independence. The approach is based on updates and analysis of a number of major labour market indicators. These include: labour force participation; unemployment; sector and status of employment; wages/earnings; and education and skills. Taken together, they show whether women who want to work actually do so, whether women find it harder to get a job than men, differences in the type of work done by women and men and equality of treatment in areas ranging from pay to education and training." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Albanesi, Stefania & Claudia Olivetti (2006): Home production, market production and the gender wage gap. Incentives and expectations. (NBER working paper 12212), Cambridge, Mass., 44 S., Anhang. DOI:10.3386/w12212

Abstract

"The purpose of this paper is to study the joint determination of gender differentials in labor market outcomes and in the household division of labor. Specifically, we explore the hypothesis that incentive problems in the labor market amplify differences in earnings due to gender differentials in home hours. In turn, earnings differentials across genders reinforce the division of labor within the household. This gives rise to a potentially self-fulfilling feedback mechanism. As a consequence, gender differentials in earnings will be larger than any initial difference in relative productivity across genders. Even if productivity in home and market work is the same for female and male workers, both gendered and ungendered equilibria are possible and equally likely. If womens' comparative advantage in home production is large enough, there exists a unique equilibrium in which they have higher home hours and lower earnings than men. Our model delivers predictions on the relation between earnings ratios, incentive pay and home hours. First, gender earnings differentials should be higher for married workers in occupations in which the incentive problem is more severe. This effect should be stronger when the gender difference in home hours is greater. Moreover, the difference in the fraction of incentive pay across genders should be smaller for higher values of the female/male earnings ratio. Second, the husband/wife ratio of home hours should be negatively related with both the husband/wife earnings ratio and the difference in the fraction of incentive pay. We use the Census and the PSID to study these predictions and find that they are amply supported by the data." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Biffl, Gudrun (2006): Mehr Jobs und bessere Einkommenschancen für Frauen. Eine gesellschaftspolitische Herausforderung für Österreich. In: Wiso. Wirtschafts- und sozialpolitische Zeitschrift des ISW, Jg. 29, H. 2, S. 89-108.

Abstract

"Die Beschäftigung der Frauen in Österreich ist geprägt von ihrer Doppelrolle als Berufstätige und Hausfrauen. Frauen stehen aufgrund ihrer Verpflichtungen im Haushalt nur bedingt dem Arbeitsmarkt zur Verfügung. Dieses Verhalten hat Auswirkungen auf die Bildungslaufbahnen. In Österreich ist es im Laufe der Zeit nicht zu einer Auflockerung der geschlechtsspezifischen Bildungsmuster gekommen. Männer sind auf gut vermarktbare technisch-naturwissenschaftliche Ausbildungszweige konzentriert und Frauen auf kaufmännische und personenbezogene Dienste. Die geringe Verlagerung der Haushaltsproduktion auf den Markt hat zur Folge, dass Frauen in Österreich stärker als im Schnitt der EU auf bestimmte Branchen und Berufe konzentriert sind. Obendrein arbeiten Frauen in Österreich häufiger Teilzeit, was zur Folge hat, dass sie seltener in Leitenden Positionen aufrücken können. Dieser Effekt wird dadurch noch verstärkt, dass Frauen aufgrund von Betreuungspflichten in ihrer regionalen Mobilität eingeschränkt sind, was sie stärker an den lokalen Arbeitsmarkt bindet. In der Folge arbeiten sie häufiger als Männer in Klein- und Mittelbetrieben, die nicht nur geringere Karrieremöglichkeiten anbieten können, sondern auch keine hohen Löhne." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Blau, Francine D. & Lawrence M. Kahn (2006): The U.S. gender pay gap in the 1990s. Slowing convergence. In: Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Jg. 60, H. 1, S. 45-66. DOI:10.1177/001979390606000103

Abstract

"Using Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) data, the authors study the slowdown in the convergence of female and male wages in the 1990s compared to the 1980s. They find that changes in human capital did not contribute to the slowdown, since women's relative human capital improved comparably in the two decades. Occupational upgrading and deunionization had a larger positive effect on women's relative wages in the 1980s than in the 1990s, explaining part of the slower 1990s convergence. However, the largest factor was a much faster reduction of the 'unexplained' gender wage gap in the 1980s than in the 1990s. The evidence suggests that changes in labor force selectivity, changes in gender differences in unmeasured characteristics and in labor market discrimination, and changes in the favorableness of demand shifts each may have contributed to the slowing convergence of the unexplained gender pay gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Blau, Francine D., Marianne A. Ferber & Anne E. Winkler (2006): The economics of women, men, and work. Upper Saddle River u.a.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 444 S.

Abstract

Das Buch bietet einen umfassenden Überblick über die Stellung von Frauen und Männern auf dem Arbeitsmarkt und in der Familie. Schwerpunkte liegen auf der historischen Entwicklung und den aktuellen Trends und auf den institutionellen und politischen Rahmenbedingungen des Geschlechterverhältnisses in den USA, sowie auf Theorien zur Erklärung geschlechtsspezifischer Unterschiede. Kapitel 2 behandelt die historische Entwicklung der Geschlechterrollen, Kapitel 3 widmet sich der Familie als ökonomischer Einheit sowie der geschlechtsspezifischen Arbeitsteilung in Familien, der Verteilung von Hausarbeit zwischen den Geschlechtern und alternativen Ansätzen der Entscheidungsfindung in Familien. Kapitel 4 analysiert die Entscheidung von Individuen, wieviel Zeit für Haushalt und Erwerbsarbeit eingesetzt wird, und arbeitet die Bestimmungsfaktoren der Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern und Frauen heraus. Kapitel 5 bietet einen Überblick über die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede in Hinblick auf Beschäftigung und Löhne, in Kapitel 6 werden diese Unterschiede aus der Perspektive des Humankapitalansatzes erklärt, in Kapitel 7 dient die Diskrimierung von Frauen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt als Erklärungsansatz. In Kapitel 8 wird auf aktuelle Entwicklungen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt eingegangen, insbesondere auf die Verringerung des geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnunterschieds, die Zunahme selbstständiger und atypischer Beschäftigung sowie auf den abnehmenden Einfluss der Gewerkschaften. Im Mittelpunkt von Kapitel 9 stehen die ökonomischen Ursachen des Wandels der Familienstrukturen, zum Beispiel des Wachsen des Anteils an Doppelverdienern und Alleinerziehenden. In Kapitel 10 werden politische Maßnahmen thematisiert, die Erwerbsarbeit und Familie betreffen, insbesondere Maßnahmen zur Armutsbekämpfung sowie steuer- und familienpolitische Maßnahmen zur Vereinbarung von Beruf und Familie. Kapitel 11 vergleicht die Situation in den USA mit der in anderen Ländern, vor allem in Industrieländern. (IAB)

Zitatform

Blau, Francine D. & Lawrence M. Kahn (2006): The U.S. gender pay gap in the 1990s. Slowing convergence. (IZA discussion paper 2176), Bonn, 43 S.

Abstract

"Using Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) data, we study the slowdown in the convergence of female and male wages in the 1990s compared to the 1980s. We find that changes in human capital did not contribute to the slowdown, since women's relative human capital improved comparably in the two decades. Occupational upgrading and deunionization had a larger positive effect on women's relative wages in the 1980s, explaining a portion of the slower 1990s convergence. However, the largest factor was that the 'unexplained' gender wage gap fell much faster in the 1980s than the 1990s. Our evidence suggests that changes in labor force selectivity, changes in gender differences in unmeasured characteristics and in labor market discrimination, as well as changes in the favorableness of demand shifts each may have contributed to the slowing convergence of the unexplained gender pay gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Blau, Francine D., Mary C. Brinton & David B. Grusky (Hrsg.) (2006): The declining significance of gender? New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 296 S.

Abstract

"The last half-century has witnessed substantial change in the opportunities and rewards available to men and women in the workplace. While the gender pay gap narrowed and female labor force participation rose dramatically in recent decades, some dimensions of gender inequality-most notably the division of labor in the family-have been more resistant to change, or have changed more slowly in recent years than in the past. These trends suggest that one of two possible futures could lie ahead: an optimistic scenario in which gender inequalities continue to erode, or a pessimistic scenario where contemporary institutional arrangements persevere and the gender revolution stalls. In The Declining Significance of Gender? editors Francine Blau, Mary Brinton, and David Grusky bring together top gender scholars in sociology and economics to make sense of the recent changes in gender inequality, and to judge whether the optimistic or pessimistic view better depicts the prospects and bottlenecks that lie ahead. It examines the economic, organizational, political, and cultural forces that have changed the status of women and men in the labor market. The contributors examine the economic assumption that discrimination in hiring is economically inefficient and will be weeded out eventually by market competition. They explore the effect that family-family organizational policies have had in drawing women into the workplace and giving them even footing in the organizational hierarchy. Several chapters ask whether political interventions might reduce or increase gender inequality, and others discuss whether a social ethos favoring egalitarianism is working to overcome generations of discriminatory treatment against women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Couppié, Thomas, Arnaud Dupray & Stephanie Moullet (2006): Les salaires des hommes et des femmes en debut de vie active. Des sources des disparite variables selon les professions. In: Formation Emploi H. 93, S. 29-47.

Abstract

"In diesem Beitrag werden die Einkommensunterschiede zwischen Frauen und Männern drei Jahre nach ihrem Eintritt ins Berufsleben je nach Berufsgruppe sowie nach Grad und Ursache der Vergeschlechtlichung - geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede bei der allgemeinen und beruflichen Bildung und/oder berufliche Segregation - bestimmter Berufsbereiche untersucht, um somit Lohndiskriminierungen festzumachen. Frauen, die in typischen Männerberufen tätig sind, verdienen fast genauso viel wie ihre männlichen Kollegen. Doch der minimale Verdienstunterschied kann nicht darüber hinwegtäuschen, dass hier unterschiedliche individuelle und somit diskriminierende Kriterien zu Grunde gelegt werden (gleiche Arbeit, ungleicher Lohn). In den übrigen Berufen führen die für Männer tendenziell besseren Arbeitsbedingungen zu Lohnunterschieden zwischen den Geschlechtern. In Berufen mit geschlechtsspezifisch geprägten Ausbildungsfeldern werden Frauen am besten bezahlt. In allen Berufssparten hängt die Lohndiskriminierung von Frauen letztlich nicht von Produktivitätsunterschieden wie (Aus)Bildung, Berufserfahrung, Betriebszugehörigkeit usw., sondern von der individuellen beruflichen Situation ab." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Cournede, Boris (2006): Removing obstacles to employment for women in Ireland. (OECD Economics Department working papers 511), Paris, 19 S. DOI:10.1787/431167074033

Abstract

"Women have contributed a great deal to Ireland?s economic growth, including by joining the labour force in large numbers. The rise in female participation since 1990 has been amongst the strongest in the OECD, but from a low base. Female participation rates remain below the OECD average for all except the under-thirties. Cultural attitudes and low educational attainment among older women are factors, but policy settings play a role as well. Support to families is not targeted at working parents, implying that the return to work is low for many mothers. Working parents of school-age children also face difficulties in reconciling employment and work because out-of-school care is insufficiently developed. The tax system should be further improved to support second earners, most of whom are women, so as to strengthen their incentive to enter the labour market and reduce the bias in favour of the home production of services such as childcare. This paper reviews these issues and offers recommendations to continue to create a more favourable environment for women who want to enter the labour market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Daly, Anne, Akira Kawaguchi, Xin Meng & Karen A. Mumford (2006): The gender wage gap in four countries. (IZA discussion paper 1921), Bonn, 22 S.

Abstract

"In a series of studies written during the 1980s Bob Gregory and his co-authors compared the gender wage gap in Australia with that found in other countries. They found it was not the difference in human capital endowments that explained different gender wage gaps but rather the rewards for these endowments. They concluded that country-specific factors, especially the institutional environment, were important in explaining the gender wage gap. This study updates Gregory's work by comparing the gender wage gap across four countries, Australia, France, Japan and Britain. Our results concord with those of Gregory: institutions are still important in explaining the relative size of the gender wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Dougherty, Crhistopher (2006): The marriage earnings premium as a distributed fixed effect. In: The Journal of Human Resources, Jg. 41, H. 2, S. 433-443.

Abstract

"Wage equations using cross-sectional data typically find an earnings premium in excess of 10 percent for married men. One leading hypothesis for the premium is that marriage facilitates specialization that enables married men to become more productive than single men. Another is that the premium is attributable to an unobserved fixed effect, married men possessing qualities that are valued in the labor market as well as the marriage market. This paper suggests that the premium is attributable to an unobserved time-distributed fixed effect that emerges and grows with the approach of marriage and continues to grow for some years after marriage. A similar distributed fixed effect is found in the case of women, but it is smaller and declines after a few years of marriage. The results appear to cast doubt on the specialization hypothesis." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Goldin, Claudia (2006): The quiet revolution that transformed women's employment, education, and family. (NBER working paper 11953), Cambridge, Mass., 48 S. DOI:10.3386/w11953

Abstract

"The modern economic role of women emerged in four phases. The first three were evolutionary; the last was revolutionary. Phase I occurred from the late nineteenth century to the 1920s; Phase II was from 1930 to 1950; Phase III extended from 1950 to the late 1970s; and Phase IV, the 'quiet revolution,' began in the late 1970s and is still ongoing. Three aspects of women's choices distinguish the evolutionary from the revolutionary phases: horizon, identity, and decision-making. The evolutionary phases are apparent in time-series data on labor force participation. The revolutionary phase is discernible using time-series evidence on women's more predictable attachment to the workplace, greater identity with career, and better ability to make joint decisions with their spouses. Each of these series has a sharp break or inflection point signifying social and economic change. These changes, moreover, coincide by birth cohort or period. The relationship between the development of modern labor economics and the reality of women's changing economic role is explored. The paper concludes by assessing whether the revolution has stalled or is being reversed. Women who graduated college in the early 1980s did not 'opt-out,'but recent cohorts are too young to evaluate." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Heinze, Anja & Elke Wolf (2006): Gender earnings gap in German firms. The impact of firm characteristics and institutions. (ZEW discussion paper 2006-020), Mannheim, 42 S.

Abstract

Der Beitrag widmet sich dem Betrieb als Ort, an dem die Lohnungleichheit zwischen Männern und Frauen entsteht und aufrechterhalten wird. Linked-Employer-Employee-Daten erlauben es, über individuelle Faktoren hinaus die Bedeutung des Arbeitsplatzes für geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede zu untersuchen. Vorgestellt werden die Ergebnisse einer umfassenden Studie zu den Auswirkungen betrieblicher und institutioneller Faktoren auf die geschlechtsspezifische Lohnkluft. Der Schwerpunkt liegt dabei nicht auf einem Vergleich der durchschnittlichen Löhne von Männern und Frauen, sondern auf einem innerbetrieblichen Vergleich der Löhne von Männern und Frauen. Dabei zeigt sich, dass die durchschnittlichen geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnunterschiede innerhalb der Betriebe geringer ausfallen als die grundsätzliche Lohnkluft zwischen Männern und Frauen. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, dass Mitbestimmung durch Betriebsräte und Tarifverträge mit einer kleineren Lohnkluft in den Betrieben einhergehen. Dies gilt auch für einen hohen Anteil an qualifizierten Frauen, vor allem in Kleinbetrieben. Die geschlechtsspezifische Lohnkluft nimmt mit der Betriebsgröße ab und steigt mit dem Lohnniveau. (IAB)

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Holst, Elke & Mechthild Schrooten (2006): Führungspositionen: Frauen geringer entlohnt und nach wie vor seltener vertreten. In: DIW-Wochenbericht, Jg. 73, H. 25, S. 365-372.

Abstract

"Die Entlohnung von Frauen in Führungspositionen bleibt deutlich hinter der von Männern zurück. Unter Kostenaspekten müsste dies für Arbeitgeber ein Anreiz sein, Frauen zu beschäftigen. Tatsächlich sind Frauen in höheren Positionen aber nach wie vor viel seltener vertreten als Männer. Dies gilt insbesondere für Positionen mit sogenannten umfassenden Führungsaufgaben. Um den Anteil von Frauen in Führungspositionen deutlich zu steigern, müssen offenbar entschiedenere Maßnahmen zur Herstellung beruflicher Chancengleichheit ergriffen werden als bisher. Dazu gehören neben der Verbesserung der Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf auch gezielte Personalentwicklungsmaßnahmen für qualifizierte Frauen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Ichino, Andrea & Enrico Moretti (2006): Biological gender differences, absenteeism and the earning gap. (IZA discussion paper 2207), Bonn, 57 S.

Abstract

"In most Western countries illness-related absenteeism is higher among female workers than among male workers. Using the personnel dataset of a large Italian bank, we show that the probability of an absence due to illness increases for females, relative to males, approximately 28 days after a previous illness. This difference disappears for workers age 45 or older. We interpret this as evidence that the menstrual cycle raises female absenteeism. Absences with a 28-day cycle explain a significant fraction of the male-female absenteeism gap. To investigate the effect of absenteeism on earnings, we use a simple signaling model in which employers cannot directly observe workers' productivity, and therefore use observable characteristics - including absenteeism - to set wages. Since men are absent from work because of health and shirking reasons, while women face an additional exogenous source of health shocks due to menstruation, the signal extraction based on absenteeism is more! informative about shirking for males than for females. Consistent with the predictions of the model, we find that the relationship between earnings and absenteeism is more negative for males than for females. Furthermore, this difference declines with seniority, as employers learn more about their workers' true productivity. Finally, we calculate the earnings cost for women associated with menstruation. We find that higher absenteeism induced by the 28-day cycle explains 11.8 percent of the earnings gender differential." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Jirjahn, Uwe & Gesine Stephan (2006): Gender and wages in Germany. The impact of product market competition and collective bargaining. In: J. S. Heywood & J. H. Peoples (Hrsg.) (2006): Product market structure and labor market discrimination, S. 59-80.

Abstract

"A substantial literature confirms the existence of a significant gender wage differential, even controlling for productive worker characteristics. Yet, the size of the gender wage differential varies substantially across countries) These remarkable differences raise an interesting question, Do differences in institutions and markets influence the extent of discrimination? We address the question by studying blue-collar workers in West German establishments facing different market forces and institutional influences. Specifically, we investigate the impact of product market competition and collective bargaining agreements on the gender wage differential.
In the theoretical part of this chapter, we argue that it is important to consider the agents of discrimination and the channels through which discrimination occurs. In the presence of equal employment opportunity and equal pay laws, actors cannot avowedly discriminate against women. To continue in the practice they need to hide discriminatory practices. Hiding discrimination requires discretion in hiring, job evaluation, or performance appraisal. Market forces and institutions influence the degree of discretion and, thus, the degree of discrimination. These forces and institutions may influence the use of payment schemes within establishments that reduce the degree of discretion. Thus, product market competition may force management to reduce slack and improve efficiency by adopting payment schemes. Collective bargaining agreements reduce the degree of discretion in performance appraisal if they contain detailed regulations concerning the design of payment schemes. Moreover, collective bargaining may influence the creation of a trustful employer-employee relationship within establishments, which is crucial for the adopdon of particular payment schemes.
The empirical analysis uses matched employer-employee data from manufacturing establishments in the German federal state of Lower Saxony. The analysis proceeds in three steps. First, we investigate the determinants of piece rates. The focus on piece rates is motivated by the idea that piece rates provide less discretion for performance appraisals since the quantity of produced output can be easily verified (see Heywood and O'Halloran in chapter 9 of this volume). In the second step, we estimate wage regressions with fixed establishment effects on wages to analyze the impact of performance pay on wages of male and female employees at the individual level. However, performance pay is only one element of the firm wage policy and further unobserved elements may influence the gender wage gap too. The impact of the unobserved firm wage policies on the gender wage gap is reflected by differences in fixed firm effects on the wages for male and female workers. Thus, in a third step we analyze determinants of the gender-specific differences in establishment effects on wages. In particular we investigate the role of collective bargaining and product market competition." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kalenkoski, Charlene M., David C. Ribar & Leslie S. Stratton (2006): The influence of wages on parents' allocations of time to child care and market work in the United Kingdom. (IZA discussion paper 2436), Bonn, 31 S.

Abstract

"We use time-diary data on couples with children from the 2000 United Kingdom Time Use Survey to examine the impacts of own and partner's wages on parents' provision of child care and market work on weekdays and on weekends and holidays. We find that increases in partners' wages increase women's primary care on all days and decrease their market work on weekdays, while increases in women's own wages increase their market work on weekdays. In contrast, men's time use is only responsive to their own wage on weekend days, when they reduce their market time and increase their primary child care time in response to higher wages." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kohn, Karsten (2006): Rising wage dispersion, after all! The German wage structure at the turn of the century. (IZA discussion paper 2098), Bonn, 50 S.

Abstract

"Using register data from the IAB employment sample, this paper studies the wage structure in the German labor market throughout the years 1992-2001. Wage dispersion has generally been rising. The increase was more pronounced in East Germany and occurred predominantly in the lower part of the wage distribution for women and in the upper part for men. Censored quantile wage regressions reveal diverse age and skill patterns. Applying Machado/Mata (2005)-type decompositions I conclude that differences in the composition of the work force only had a small impact on the observed wage differentials between East and West Germany, but changes in the characteristics captured better parts of the observed wage changes over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Lee, Donghoon & Kenneth I. Wolpin (2006): Accounting for wage and employment changes in the U. S. from 1968-2000. A dynamic model of labor market equilibrium. (PIER working paper 06-005), Philadelphia, Pa., 62 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, we present a unified treatment of and explanation for the evolution of wages and employment in the U.S. over the last 30 years. Specifically, we account for the pattern of changes in wage inequality, for the increased relative wage and employment of women, for the emergence of the college wage premium and for the shift in employment from the goods to the service-producing sector. The underlying theory we adopt is neoclassical, a two-sector competitive labor market economy in which the supply of and demand for labor of heterogeneous skill determines spot market skill-rental prices. The empirical approach is structural. The model embeds many of the features that have been posited in the literature to have contributed to the changing U.S. wage and employment structure including skill-biased technical change, capitalskill complementarity, changes in relative product-market prices, changes in the productivity of labor in home production and demographics such as changing cohort size and fertility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))