Gender und Arbeitsmarkt
Das Themendossier "Gender und Arbeitsmarkt" bietet wissenschaftliche und politiknahe Veröffentlichungen zu den Themen Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen und Männern, Müttern und Vätern, Berufsrückkehrenden, Betreuung/Pflege und Arbeitsteilung in der Familie, Work-Life-Management, Determinanten der Erwerbsbeteiligung, geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede, familien- und steuerpolitische Regelungen sowie Arbeitsmarktpolitik für Frauen und Männer.
Mit dem Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern
- Kinderbetreuung und Pflege
- Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation
- Berufsrückkehr – Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt
- Dual-Career-Couples
- Work-Life
- Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede
- Familienpolitische Rahmenbedingungen
- Aktive/aktivierende Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- Arbeitslosigkeit und passive Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- geografischer Bezug
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Literaturhinweis
Gender pay gap among non-executive directors in Spanish boards (2026)
Zitatform
Acero, Isabel & Nuria Alcalde (2026): Gender pay gap among non-executive directors in Spanish boards. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 58, H. 24, S. 4667-4679. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2025.2499209
Abstract
"This study focuses on the existence or not of a gender pay gap (GPG) among non-executive directors (NEDs) in Spanish boards. For this purpose, we used a sample covering 4,018 positions/year for NEDs in 57 Spanish listed firms over a 10-year period (2013–2022). The results obtained suggest that, controlling for individual characteristics of the directors, the type of position held as well as the features of the company and its corporate governance system, female NEDs receive approximately 11% less remuneration than their male counterparts. Therefore, our findings do not support the idea that female directors are a scarce resource that firms compete for and reward. The results also highlight the need to differentiate by categories of directors when analysing the GPG in the board. In fact, we find that the GPG is higher for proprietary directors (around 18%) than for independent directors (around 6%). In terms of practical implications, our results may be of interest to policy-makers who are considering gender equity policies to break the glass ceiling." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Social Security, Gender and Class: The impacts of the Universal Credit Conditionality Regime on Unpaid Care and Paid Work (2026)
Zitatform
Andersen, Kate (2026): Social Security, Gender and Class: The impacts of the Universal Credit Conditionality Regime on Unpaid Care and Paid Work. In: Social Policy and Society, Jg. 25, H. 1, S. 44-59. DOI:10.1017/S1474746424000071
Abstract
"The introduction of Universal Credit, a new means-tested benefit for working-aged people in the UK, entails a significant expansion of welfare conditionality. Due to mothers’ disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care, women are particularly affected by the new conditionality regime for parents who have the primary responsibility for the care of dependent children. This article draws upon qualitative longitudinal research with twenty-four mothers subject to the new conditionality regime to analyze the gendered impacts of this new policy and whether there is variation in experiences according to social class. The analysis demonstrates that the new conditionality regime devalues unpaid care and is of limited efficacy in improving sustained moves into paid work. It also shows that the negative gendered impacts of the conditionality within Universal Credit are at times exacerbated for working-class mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Gender Pay Gap in University Student Internships (2026)
Zitatform
Antoni, Manfred, Hans-Dieter Gerner, Robert Jäckle & Stefan Schwarz (2026): The Gender Pay Gap in University Student Internships. In: German Economic Review, Jg. 27, H. 3, S. 283-329., 2025-09-18. DOI:10.1515/ger-2024-0130
Abstract
"Internships are an important and often mandatory part of academic education. They offer valuable insights into the labor market but can also expose students to negative aspects of the working world, such as gender pay disparities. We provide first evidence of a gender pay gap in mandatory internships, with women earning up to 21 % less per hour than men. This gap is not due to women choosing higher-quality internships over higher pay. Factors such as field of study, risk aversion, competitiveness, the focus of the internship, and firm characteristics account for a large share of the gap. Further analyses show that the internship pay gap is broadly similar to the wage gap at labor market entry among graduates. We discuss potential mechanisms through which the internship pay gap may be related to the entry wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © DeGruyter Brill) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Technological progress, occupational structure and gender gaps in the German labour market (2026)
Zitatform
Bachmann, Ronald & Myrielle Gonschor (2026): Technological progress, occupational structure and gender gaps in the German labour market. In: International Journal of Manpower, Jg. 47, H. 2, S. 403-422. DOI:10.1108/ijm-10-2024-0711
Abstract
"Purpose: This study examines whether advances in technology and shifts in the occupational structure have enhanced women's position within the labour market. It answers the following research questions: First, how has the occupational employment structure evolved over the last decades, and how is this related to gender gaps? Second, which factors explain the gender gap and its narrowing over time? Design/methodology/approach: We use individual-level panel data from the Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) for West Germany over the period 1985–2017 and individual-level task data from the BIBB Employment survey. We use the task intensity of an occupation and the task group an occupation belongs to as proxies for technological change. To analyze explanatory factors, we use a Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition. Findings: Women are increasingly engaging in non-routine manual and interactive occupations. The concurrent narrowing of the gender wage gap is attributable to declining gender wage gaps within task groups rather than between them. Observable factors, such as education have grown in importance to the gender wage gap, whereas the importance of unexplained factors has strongly declined. Technological change plays no significant role in the evolution of the gender wage gap. By contrast, part-time employment exerts a substantial influence on the gender wage gap. Originality/value: Our analysis includes part-time and high-skilled workers frequently excluded from other studies. The use of individual-level data combined with task information for occupations facilitates the examination of long-run developments such as technological change both between and within task groups." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Disaggregating Gender Income Disparities in STEM: Cohort and Family Factors in a Nordic Welfare State (2026)
Zitatform
Bairoh, Susanna, Satu Pyöriä & Niklas Mäkinen (2026): Disaggregating Gender Income Disparities in STEM: Cohort and Family Factors in a Nordic Welfare State. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 113-134. DOI:10.1177/09500170251366157
Abstract
"The article examines the income trajectories of women and men in STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) in Finland, a country within the Nordic labour market context that strives for gender equality. The study uses total population register data from Finnish STEM degree holders with at least a bachelor’s degree, aged 30–40 years, selecting cohorts born in 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975 and 1980 (N = 31,865). This study estimates how cohort, becoming a parent, and co-residing with a spouse affect income trajectories for women and men. The findings reveal persistent gender income disparities across cohorts, with economic turbulence potentially widening the differences. The results support the motherhood penalty and, unexpectedly, address a ‘living-alone penalty’ for men. Even with a design examining STEM graduates at the same career stage, gender differences remain significant and are not alleviated by the Nordic welfare state context." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does Performance Pay Increase the Risk of Worker Loneliness? (2026)
Zitatform
Baktash, Mehrzad B. (2026): Does Performance Pay Increase the Risk of Worker Loneliness? In: Kyklos, Jg. 79, H. 1, S. 129-148. DOI:10.1111/kykl.70018
Abstract
"Increased wages and productivity associated with performance pay can be beneficial to both employers and employees. However, performance pay can also entail unintended consequences for workers' well-being. This study is the first to systematically examine the association between performance pay and loneliness, a significant policy-relevant social well-being concern. Using representative survey data from Germany, I show that performance pay is significantly associated with increased loneliness. Correspondingly, performance pay is negatively associated with the social life satisfaction of workers. Investigating the transmission channels reveals work hours, earnings, conflict with coworkers, and conflict with the life partner as important mediators. The key findings also hold in sensible instrumental variable estimations, addressing the potential endogeneity of performance pay and in various robustness checks. Finally, implications are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does performance pay increase the risk of marital instability? (2026)
Zitatform
Baktash, Mehrzad B., John S. Heywood & Uwe Jirjahn (2026): Does performance pay increase the risk of marital instability? In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 24, H. 2, S. 443-474. DOI:10.1007/s11150-024-09738-1
Abstract
"This study is the first to systematically examine the association between performance pay and marital instability. Using German survey data on married couples and including an extensive set of controls, we show that performance pay is associated with an increased probability of subsequent separation or divorce. Yet, the results are entirely gender specific. When husbands earn performance pay, no association with marital instability is found. When wives earn performance pay, the association is large and robust. This pattern persists across a variety of modeling choices and holds in instrumental variable estimations accounting for the endogeneity of performance pay. We argue that the pattern fits theoretical expectations and discuss the implications." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Falling behind unequally: labour market outcomes of Italian couples after childbirth* (2026)
Zitatform
Barbieri, Teresa, Michele Bavaro & Valeria Cirillo (2026): Falling behind unequally: labour market outcomes of Italian couples after childbirth*. In: Applied Economics, S. 1-20. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2026.2624051
Abstract
"This study explores how childbirth differently shapes the career trajectories of men and women within the same couples, with a particular focus on gender disparities in experiencing downward labour transitions following the birth of their first child. Using a unique survey-administrative linked dataset, we track couples’ labour market trajectories to analyse transitions from employment to unemployment, full-time to part-time employment, and higher-paid to lower-paid jobs. Additionally, the dataset allows to link partners, enabling the study of factors influencing differences in the probabilities of downward labour market transitions between partners in the same household. Our findings reveal substantial and persistent penalties for women, lasting up to three years after childbirth, which are mainly related to part-time job arrangements. When examining differences in probabilities within couples, households in which women have tertiary education with respect to their partners and are the primary earners exhibit smaller gender disparities in the likelihood of downward labour transitions with respect to other households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Debiasing entrepreneurial careers: A field experiment on female role model effects on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and early-stage career choices (2026)
Bechthold, Laura; Huber, Laura Rosendahl; Eddleston, Kimberly A.;Zitatform
Bechthold, Laura, Laura Rosendahl Huber & Kimberly A. Eddleston (2026): Debiasing entrepreneurial careers: A field experiment on female role model effects on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and early-stage career choices. In: Journal of business venturing, Jg. 41, H. 3. DOI:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2026.106582
Abstract
"Women remain underrepresented not only as founders but also as employees – or “joiners” – in young and small firms, limiting their exposure to entrepreneurial environments that often serve as critical pathways to venture creation. To address this gap, we investigate whether introducing female entrepreneur role models in educational settings can shape young women's entrepreneurial self-efficacy and early career choices. Drawing on role congruity theory and social cognitive career theory (SCCT), we conducted a field experiment involving over 430 university students and 98 early-stage entrepreneurs. Using a pre-test/post-test design and longitudinal tracking of early career choices, we explore the causal effects of exogenously assigned female role models on students' decisions to join a young or small firm. We find that exposure to social interactions with female entrepreneurs significantly boosts female students' entrepreneurial self-efficacy. More importantly, women who were paired with a female entrepreneur were over 10% more likely to join a young firm after graduation compared to those assigned to a male entrepreneur. Mediation analysis confirms that entrepreneurial self-efficacy is a key mechanism linking exposure to same-sex role models with women's decision to join a young firm. These findings highlight the potential of targeted role model interventions to reduce gender disparities in entrepreneurial entry pathways and expand the diversity of entrepreneurial ecosystems." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Is there a desired added worker effect? Evidence from involuntary job losses (2026)
Zitatform
Beckmannshagen, Mattis & Rick Glaubitz (2026): Is there a desired added worker effect? Evidence from involuntary job losses. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 24, H. 2, S. 839-874. DOI:10.1007/s11150-024-09742-5
Abstract
"While the existing evidence on added worker effects is mixed, most studies find no or only small effects. However, studies to date have mostly analyzed individuals’ actual labor supply responses to their partners’ job loss, neglecting to consider a potential mismatch between desired and actual labor supply adjustments. Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), we study individuals’ changes in actual and desired working hours after their partners’ involuntary job loss in an event study design. Our results show that actual and desired working hours only increase marginally and that these increases are of similar magnitude. Thus, we provide first evidence that the absence of more substantial added worker effects is in line with individuals’ stated labor supply preferences and is not the result of an inability to realize desired working hours." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Labor supply responses to tax credit disbursements: Evidence from the EITC schedule (2026)
Bibler, Andrew J.;Zitatform
Bibler, Andrew J. (2026): Labor supply responses to tax credit disbursements: Evidence from the EITC schedule. In: Economic Inquiry, Jg. 64, H. 2, S. 555-573. DOI:10.1111/ecin.70040
Abstract
"The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) schedule and lump-sum disbursement can create significant labor supply responses. I estimate labor supply responses to tax credit disbursements using a regression kink design. Among single workers, credits increase labor supply around the time that tax credits are disbursed at the first and second kinks in the EITC schedule but reduce labor supply on the intensive margin at the third kink. There is some evidence of heterogeneous responses among married women, including an increase in labor supply near the third kink, although findings in the sample of married women appear less robust." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The impact of a parental leave benefit reform on parents' leave-taking, labor supply and childcare arrangements (2026)
Zitatform
Boll, Christina & Till Nikolka (2026): The impact of a parental leave benefit reform on parents' leave-taking, labor supply and childcare arrangements. In: Review of Economics of the Household, S. 1-38. DOI:10.1007/s11150-026-09845-1
Abstract
"We analyze the causal effects of a parental leave benefit reform on parents in Germany. The reform added new features to the existing scheme increasing flexibility for take-up and providing incentives for parents to work part-time during the parental leave phase. We exploit the quasi-experimental allocation of births around the eligibility date to estimate intent-to-treat-effects of the reform on parental leave take-up, parents’ labor market involvement, intra-couple childcare division and institutional childcare demand and uptake. We find that parental leave take-up of college-educated fathers in the treatment group is higher than that in the control group. Furthermore, fathers in the treatment group reduce working hours but we do not observe any significant changes for mothers. However, mothers in the treatment group whose partners have a college degree report that they would like to work more hours when returning to the labor market compared to those in the control group. While we do not find effects on intra-couple childcare division, our analysis reveals higher demand for institutional childcare among parents in the treatment group in case the father holds a college degree. However, higher childcare demand is only reflected by higher uptake among parents with children aged three or older. We suggest that parents’ heterogeneity regarding their work arrangements and gender role orientations as well as constraints in public childcare provision for toddlers might explain our findings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Geschlechtergerecht gestalten: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik (2026)
Zitatform
Bothfeld, Silke, Christian Hohendanner, Petra Schütt & Aysel Yollu-Tok (Hrsg.) (2026): Geschlechtergerecht gestalten. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 471 S. DOI:10.12907/978-3-593-45932-5
Abstract
"Trotz zahlreicher Bemühungen und Erfolge in der Gleichstellungspolitik seit Ende der 1990er Jahre bestehen in der Praxis nach wie vor erhebliche geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. Frauen haben nach wie vor geringere Erfolgsaussichten beim Zugang und beim Verbleib in Beschäftigung, ihre Bezahlung und ihre Aufstiegsmöglichkeiten sind schlechter. Die Beiträge dieses Bandes bieten einen umfassenden Überblick über die aktuelle geschlechtsbezogene Arbeits(marktpolitik-)forschung. Mit einem multiperspektivischen Blick auf den vergeschlechtlichten Arbeitsmarkt gelingt es dem Band, historische Aspekte, Gegenwartsanalysen sowie gesellschaftliche Transformationsprozesse und Lösungsansätze zu verbinden." (Verlagsangaben, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Fathers Combining Work and Care: Flexible Work Arrangements and Paternal Involvement Across Financial Situations (2026)
Zitatform
Brega, Carla, Mara A. Yerkes & Marc Grau-Grau (2026): Fathers Combining Work and Care: Flexible Work Arrangements and Paternal Involvement Across Financial Situations. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 2, S. 225-249. DOI:10.1177/09500170251386322
Abstract
"Flexible work arrangements significantly impact childcare divisions among dual-earner parents, yet few studies address their impact on fathers as primary caregivers. This article explores the relationship between fathers’ ability to work flexibly and their share of childcare responsibility across financial situations. A capabilities perspective is applied to better understand why fathers’ childcare aspirations may not align with what they are capable of in practice. Using 2021 survey data on fathers (n = 493) and mothers (n = 472) of young children in different-sex partnerships from four European countries, multinomial logistic regressions are estimated to predict childcare responsibility. Findings suggest fathers’ spatial flexibility (working from home) increases their likelihood of being the person primarily responsible for childcare, whereas temporal flexibility (varying the start/end times of the working day) does not. Economic conditions influence these dynamics, with financially strained fathers benefiting most from spatial flexibility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Flexible Work Arrangements and Occupational Class: Fathers Navigating Childcare Responsibilities (2026)
Zitatform
Brega, Carla (2026): Flexible Work Arrangements and Occupational Class: Fathers Navigating Childcare Responsibilities. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 33, H. 3, S. 1053-1064. DOI:10.1111/gwao.70111
Abstract
"When using flexible work arrangements for caregiving, fathers risk deviating from both social expectations of breadwinning and ideal worker standards, yet implications of this divergence across different occupational classes remain unclear. Using 40 semi-structured interviews with fathers from the Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, and the UK, this study explores and compares the negotiated use of flexible working arrangements (FWAs) for care among managerial-professional fathers and fathers in routine white-collar and blue-collar occupations. Employing abductive analysis within a constructivist grounded theory framework, the article delves into how fathers from different work-related backgrounds navigate the tension between their paid work (in)flexibility and their childcare involvement. Results show evidence of occupational-class differences in two key areas: Varying degrees of access to and use of FWAs for care; and navigating work and family dedication, including how fathers deal with competing commitments and what using flexibility implies for the tension between expectations of being both involved fathers and dedicated workers. At a higher level of abstraction, these contribute to theorization of a class-based double bind of fatherhood and flexibility, providing a much-needed view of how working fathers navigate the complexities of (gendered) organizational structures. Finally, implications are discussed, including organizational support addressing occupational-class barriers to FWAs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Early Childhood Education and Care and mother's labor supply: The role of publication and weak causal design biases (2026)
Zitatform
Brugarolas, Pablo (2026): Early Childhood Education and Care and mother's labor supply: The role of publication and weak causal design biases. In: Review of Economics of the Household, S. 1-37. DOI:10.1007/s11150-026-09847-z
Abstract
"This paper conducts a meta-analysis of causal studies examining the impact of Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) programs on maternal employment in developed countries. Using 981 effect-size estimates from 35 studies, I harmonize employment outcomes into percentage-point changes and assemble 70 study-level characteristics describing program design, subgroups, contexts, and empirical strategies. I apply a battery of linear and non-linear publication-bias tests and use model-averaging methods to account jointly for publication bias and what I term weak design bias, defined by whether studies satisfy core identification diagnostics for RDD, IV, RCT, and DiD designs. Publication bias is modest but non-negligible: correcting only for selective reporting reduces the descriptive mean effect of around 5 percentage points (p.p.) to roughly 1 p.p., yielding insignificant implied intention-to-treat (ITT) effects and average treatment-on-the-treated (ATT) effects of about 4 p.p. Once I also reweight the literature toward designs that meet identification checks, the implied ITT effect rises to about 8 p.p., and the implied ATT effect stabilizes around 10 p.p. The corrected ATT effects are particularly pronounced for child care programs, delivered by public providers, and implemented in high-employment settings. Overall, the results suggest that modern ECEC expansions generate sizeable employment gains for already attached mothers facing binding care constraints. They also provide bias-corrected benchmarks for evaluating ECEC reforms and their contribution to mitigating child penalties and gender gaps in labour-market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Transparency upon request: the right to pay information and the gender pay gap (2026)
Brütt, Katharina; Yuan, Huaiping;Zitatform
Brütt, Katharina & Huaiping Yuan (2026): Transparency upon request: the right to pay information and the gender pay gap. In: Economica, S. 1-37. DOI:10.1111/ecca.70051
Abstract
"Pay transparency measures are widely adopted policy instruments to decrease the gender pay gap. This paper studies a policy that grants access to wage information only upon request, analysing a German pay transparency law that grants workers the right to request information about the earnings of colleagues in comparable positions. Using large-scale administrative data and exploiting variation in exposure to the policy due to an exogenous cut-off in firm size, we investigate the causal impact of this pay transparency policy. Wages and the gender wage gap in treated firms were unaffected. The right to request wage information alone, that is, the endogenous access to wage information, is not an effective policy tool. These findings are robust, with no detectable effects in firms where pay transparency may be particularly powerful." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Die Wechseljahre der Frau – ein blinder Fleck in der Arbeitswelt (2026)
Zitatform
Burkert, Carola, Dana Müller, Hannah Sinja Steinberg & Marieke Volkert (2026): Die Wechseljahre der Frau – ein blinder Fleck in der Arbeitswelt. In: IAB-Forum H. 24.06.2026. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20260624.01
Abstract
"Das IAB hat neue und umfassende Daten zu den Wechseljahren der Frau erhoben. Demnach leiden fast zwei Drittel der Frauen zwischen 40 und 55 Jahren, die sich nach eigener Auskunft in den Wechseljahren befinden, an sechs oder mehr typischen Beschwerden. Dies trifft aber auch auf fast die Hälfte der Frauen zu, die sich (noch) nicht in den Wechseljahren vermuten. Eine hohe Anzahl an Beschwerden geht zudem mit einer deutlich niedrigeren Arbeitsmarktbeteiligung einher." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
Beteiligte aus dem IAB
Burkert, Carola ; Müller, Dana ; Volkert, Marieke ; Steinberg, Hannah Sinja ; -
Literaturhinweis
Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation in Deutschland: Entwicklungen, Erklärungen, regionale und qualifikatorische Unterschiede (2026)
Zitatform
Bächmann, Ann-Christin, Michaela Fuchs, Volker Kotte & Brigitte Schels (2026): Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation in Deutschland: Entwicklungen, Erklärungen, regionale und qualifikatorische Unterschiede. In: S. Bothfeld, C. Hohendanner, P. Schütt & A. Yollu-Tok (Hrsg.) (2026): Geschlechtergerecht gestalten. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik, S. 175-190, 2025-02-10.
Abstract
"Die berufliche Geschlechtersegregation erweist sich als zentrales und persistentes Charakteristikum des deutschen Arbeitsmarktes. Geschlecht fungiert als soziale Ordnungsstruktur im Prozess der Berufswahl und des Matching von Personen zu Stellen (Buchmann/Kriesi 2012). Wirtschaftliche und gesamtgesellschaftliche Entwicklungen der letzten Jahrzehnte konnten zwar zu einer leichten Reduzierung der Segregation beitragen, die berufliche Trennung von Männern und Frauen aber bei weitem nicht auflösen. Sie variiert zudem stark zwischen Regionen und Qualifikationsniveaus. Der Überwindung der beruflichen Geschlechtersegregation wird eine Schlüsselrolle für die Bewältigung der Herausforderungen im Wandel der Arbeitswelt zugeschrieben (Nationale Akademie der Wissenschaften/Union der deutschen Akademien der Wissenschaften 2024). Gerade vor dem Hintergrund steigender Fachkräftebedarfe müssen politische Handlungsmöglichkeiten zur Reduzierung beruflicher Geschlechtersegregation stärker ausgeschöpft werden. Gesellschaftlich wäre dieses Ziel zudem erstrebenswert, um jungen Menschen eine »freie Berufswahl« nach Talenten und Interessen zu ermöglichen, die nicht von Geschlechterstereotypen beschränkt wird. Politische Stellschrauben zu identifizieren, gestaltet sich vor dem komplexen Zusammenspiel unterschiedlicher Faktoren, wie Geschlechterstereotypen, Rollenvorstellungen, Interessen und Präferenzen, die in Angebot und Nachfrage hineinwirken, als herausfordernd. Bisherige Initiativen wie etwa der girls’ day oder boys’ day zeigen wenig Wirkung, was mitunter auch daran liegen mag, dass sie relativ spät in der Jugend ansetzen, wenn Vorstellungen zur Geschlechtstypik von Berufen schon geprägt wurden (siehe auch Jeanrenaud in diesem Band). Empirisch zeigt sich, dass bspw. Rollenvorbilder einen Beitrag leisten können, um Segregationsmuster zu durchbrechen (Beckmann u.a. 2023). Zudem könnte mehr Durchlässigkeit im Bildungssystem, etwa zwischen beruflicher und hochschulischer Bildung, Möglichkeiten eröffnen, frühe geschlechtstypische Entscheidungen zu revidieren (Imdorf u.a. 2016). Auch die Adaption der Arbeitsbedingungen und -organisation in segregierten Berufsfeldern kann ein Ansatzpunkt sein, bspw. könnte eine bessere Bezahlung in Pflegeberufen diesen Bereich auch für junge Männer attraktiver machen. Mit Blick in die Zukunft ist abzuwarten, wie sich die zentralen Arbeitsmarktentwicklungen der kommenden Jahre auf die berufliche Trennung von Männern und Frauen auswirken. Neben dem Fachkräftemangel könnten gerade die zunehmende Digitalisierung von Arbeitsprozessen und Tätigkeiten sowie die Entwicklung neuer Berufe in der sogenannten »neuen Arbeitswelt« zusätzliche Dynamik in die berufliche Trennung der Geschlechter bringen. Erste Erkenntnisse verweisen jedoch darauf, dass diese Entwicklungen bekannte Geschlechterunterschiede eher reproduzieren als verringern (z.B. Genz/Schnabel 2023; Petroff/Fierro 2023). Zentral wird es sein, auch in Zukunft die Entwicklung der beruflichen Geschlechtersegregation und ihre Ursachen und Auswirkungen empirisch zu untersuchen und die Ergebnisse im gesamtgesellschaftlichen Diskurs zu berücksichtigen." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Lohnunterschiede von Frauen und Männern in Österreich von 2011 bis 2024 (2026)
Zitatform
Böheim, René, Marian Fink & Christine Zulehner (2026): Lohnunterschiede von Frauen und Männern in Österreich von 2011 bis 2024. (WIFO Research Briefs 2026,01), Wien, 11 S.
Abstract
"Diese Analyse basiert auf Mikrozensusdaten und untersucht die Entwicklung der geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnunterschiede von unselbständig Beschäftigten in Österreich. Es zeigt sich ein deutlicher Rückgang des unbereinigten Unterschieds im durchschnittlichen Bruttostundenlohn der 20- bis 59-Jährigen von 19,6% im Jahr 2011 auf 12,6% im Jahr 2024. Der bereinigte Lohnunterschied, der für Unterschiede in der Bildung und der Berufserfahrung sowie bei horizontaler und vertikaler Segregation kontrolliert, sank zwischen 2011 und 2012 und blieb anschließend von 2012 bis 2024 mit rund 6,4% weitgehend stabil. Eine detaillierte Untersuchung legt nahe, dass der Rückgang sowohl des erklärten als auch des unerklärten Lohnunterschieds überwiegend mit einer Angleichung der Merkmale zusammenhängt. Der Rückgang des unbereinigten wie auch des bereinigten Lohnunterschieds ist dabei vor allem in der Altersgruppe der 20- bis 39-Jährigen ausgeprägt, bei den ab 40-Jährigen zeigt sich ein deutlich schwächerer Rückgang." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Parenthood and the Career Ladder: Evidence from Academia (2026)
Zitatform
Cairo, Sofie, Ria Ivandić, Anne Sophie Lassen & Valentina Tartari (2026): Parenthood and the Career Ladder: Evidence from Academia. (Discussion paper / Berlin School of Economics 0092), Berlin, 35 S., App. DOI:10.48462/opus4-6164
Abstract
"Persistent gender gaps in the labor market are largely driven by the underrepresentation of women at the top of most professions. We study how parenthood shapes gender gaps in academic careers using population-wide administrative and survey data linked to productivity and promotion records. Parenthood marks a sharp divergence in academic careers: one in three women exit academia following motherhood. Men also experience a decline in academic employment after fatherhood, but the effects are substantially smaller. For mothers, childbirth leads to a persistent decline in both tenure attainment and research output, while men's trajectories on these margins are unaffected by parenthood. The child penalty on tenure is driven primarily by women's higher exit rates from academia. Gender differences in career aspirations do not explain these findings; instead, childcare and mobility constraints play a central role. Child penalties are exacerbated in highly competitive environments and environments without senior female role models." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Flexible Work Schedules and Labor Market Exits: A Longitudinal Analysis of Gender and Parenthood Differences in Germany (2026)
Zitatform
Cao, Xinyan & Senhu Wang (2026): Flexible Work Schedules and Labor Market Exits: A Longitudinal Analysis of Gender and Parenthood Differences in Germany. In: The sociological quarterly, Jg. 67, H. 3, S. 582-605. DOI:10.1080/00380253.2026.2655156
Abstract
"Flexible working is advocated to reduce gender inequalities in labor market exit risks by supporting work-life balance. However, research is limited on how employer-set and employee-set flexible working arrangements are associated with labor market exits and how the associations vary by gender and parenthood, since women, especially mothers, have less access to employee-set flexibility and are at heightened risk of leaving the labor market. To help address this gap, this study uses German Socio-Economic Panel data (2003–2021) and discrete-time event history models. Findings show that employer-set flexibility does not reduce labor market exit risks, and for fathers, it correlates with higher exit risks compared to fixed schedules. Conversely, employee-set flexibility correlates with a lower risk of labor market exit for all, but its protective effect is stronger for fathers (vs. childless men) and less effective for mothers. Mothers, particularly with young children under 10, still face higher exit risks even with employee-set flexibility. Overall, while autonomy over work schedules supports labor market participation, it alone cannot fully address the \u201cmotherhood penalty,\u201d likely due to blurred work-family boundaries, work cultures, and gender norms. Policy interventions should support father’s childcare involvement, challenge discrimination in worker evaluations, and address long-work-hour cultures in flexible work." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does Tax Transparency Influence Wage Setting?. Evidence on Gender Gaps (2026)
Carvalho, Cristiano C.; Vattø, Trine E.;Zitatform
Carvalho, Cristiano C. & Trine E. Vattø (2026): Does Tax Transparency Influence Wage Setting?. Evidence on Gender Gaps. (Discussion papers / Statistics Norway, Research Department 1033), Oslo, 49 S.
Abstract
"This paper examines how an often-overlooked source of pay transparency—the public disclosure of tax information—affects gender wage gaps. We exploit a 2001 change in Norway that made individual tax returns searchable online. Using matched employer–employee data and a difference in-differences design, we find that within-firm gender wage gaps fell by 2.2 percentage points (8.7 percent), driven by rising female wages. Effects are strongest in private-sector firms, industries with initially larger gaps, and municipalities that previously lacked easy access to printed tax lists. Wage gains are concentrated among job-changing women, suggesting that broad-based transparency mainly operates through improved information for job search." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Economic Incentives or Social Norms? Labor Supply Differentials Between East and West German Mothers (2026)
Zitatform
Chabé-Ferret, Bastien, Zainab Iftikhar & JungJae Park (2026): Economic Incentives or Social Norms? Labor Supply Differentials Between East and West German Mothers. (IZA discussion paper / IZA Network @ LISER 18600), Bonn: IZA Network @ LISER, 42 S.
Abstract
"This paper quantifies the contributions of social norms and economic incentives to the 350-hour annual gap in maternal labor supply between East and West Germany. Using a collective model of family formation and labor supply estimated on GSOEP data from 2000–2017, we find that the working-motherstigma accounts for 73 percent of the gap. Economic factors partially offset the norm: higher Western wages raise the opportunity cost of staying home, so equalizing wages in West to the levels in East would nearly double the gap. We show that standard policy reforms may actually widen the regional disparity, and that their effectiveness is conditional on the norm being present: once removed, the same policies have negligible effects." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Exports, Gender Inequality, and Family Commitment (2026)
Zitatform
Chalermsook, Porjai, Pekka Ilmakunnas & Rudiger von Arnim (2026): Exports, Gender Inequality, and Family Commitment. In: Labour, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 74-100. DOI:10.1111/labr.70007
Abstract
"This paper examines how exporting firms, gender, and family commitments interact to shape wage disparities. Using Finnish matched employer–employee data, we estimate wage equations that control for firm, worker, and match-specific unobservables. While exporting firms do not exhibit a wider gender wage gap overall, women with young children face additional short-run wage penalties, as shown by an event-study analysis that reveals a temporary but pronounced gap in the early post-childbirth years. These penalties are concentrated in occupations with greater temporal rigidity and limited scheduling flexibility, highlighting workplace flexibility constraints as a key mechanism. The findings suggest that the interaction between export-related temporal demands and caregiving responsibilities contributes to gendered wage dynamics. These results also raise questions about the continuing relevance of gender norms that disadvantage female employees, even in a context with strong public support for parental leave and childcare in Finland." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Die Rolle von Firmen für Geschlechterungleichheit (2026)
Zitatform
Collischon, Matthias & Florian Zimmermann (2026): Die Rolle von Firmen für Geschlechterungleichheit. In: S. Bothfeld, C. Hohendanner, P. Schütt & A. Yollu-Tok (Hrsg.) (2026): Geschlechtergerecht gestalten. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik, S. 253-267, 2025-10-05.
Abstract
"Dieser Beitrag untersuchte zwei Mechanismen, durch die Firmen zur Geschlechterungleichheit beitragen können. Erstens könnten Frauen seltener in Hochlohnfirmen arbeiten und zweitens könnten Frauen in derselben Firma geringere Löhne gezahlt werden. Im Hinblick auf die Arbeit in unterschiedlichen Firmen zeigt sich, dass Frauen seltener in Firmen arbeiten, die im Durchschnitt ein höheres Gehalt zahlen. Die Forschung deutet darauf hin, dass diese Segregation – also die Aufteilung von Frauen in Niedriglohnfirmen und Männern in Hochlohnfirmen – einerseits von Arbeitgeberseite bedingt ist, beispielsweise durch Diskriminierung oder durch soziale Schließung. Andererseits können Frauen sich aber auch gezielt bei Firmen bewerben, die geringere Löhne durch andere Vorteile kompensieren, wie beispielsweise seltenere Überstunden (vgl. Cha/Weeden 2014). Insgesamt können Unterschiede zwischen den Firmen, in denen Männer und Frauen arbeiten, rund ein Drittel der bereinigten Geschlechterlohnlücke erklären. Diese immer noch große, verbleibende Lohnlücke zeigt jedoch, dass es auch innerhalb von Betrieben noch Faktoren geben muss, die zu Geschlechterlohnlücken beitragen. Deshalb betrachteten wir im zweiten Schritt Lohnungleichheiten in Firmen und die Bedeutung des organisationalen Kontexts. Hierzu suchten wir gleichstellungsorientierte organisationale Maßnahmen, den Anteil von Managerinnen in Firmen und die Rolle von Tarifverträgen. Hier zeigt die Forschung, dass es jeweils Zusammenhänge mit Geschlechterlohnlücken gibt, diese jedoch nicht immer einfachen Mustern folgen. Beispielsweise könnten eine Erhöhung des Frauenanteils im Management und die Einführung betrieblicher nahmen die Geschlechterlohnlücke verringern. Für Tarifverträge hingegen ist das Bild uneindeutig. Die Forschung zeigt zwar, dass Lohnlücken in Betrieben, in denen Tarifverträge gelten, kleiner sind, jedoch verringert die Einführung eines Tarifvertrags die Lohnlücke nicht nachweislich. Insgesamt zeigt sich also, dass sowohl Segregation in verschiedene Firmen als auch der organisationale Kontext in Firmen einen substanziellen Teil der Geschlechterlohnlücke erklären kann, jedoch bleibt trotzdem ein unerklärter Rest übrig. Beispielsweise würde selbst bei Erhöhung des Frauenanteils im Management auf Parität, also 50 Prozent, immer noch eine Geschlechterlohnlücke verbleiben (Zimmermann, 2022). Zusammengefasst kann der Blick auf die Ebene von Firmen somit viel zum Verständnis der Geschlechterlohnlücke beitragen, aber sie sind nur Teil eines größeren Puzzles. Dies unterstreicht, wie vielschichtig das Problem der Geschlechterungleichheit ist und dass Maßnahmen auf vielen Ebenen - bei Individuen, in Betrieben, durch die Gesetzgebung - notwendig sind, um diese Lücken zu schließen. Weiterhin besteht auch auf der Firmenebene viel Forschungsbedarf. Während beispielsweise die Repräsentation von Frauen in verschiedenen Führungsebenen untersucht wurde, wissen wir wenig über die genauen Tätigkeiten einzelner Manager:innen, meist werden unterschiedliche Aufgabenbereiche zusammen gefasst. Somit könnte die Kategorisierung in Führungsebenen zu grob sein und eine Unterteilung nach genauen Tätigkeitsprofilen tiefere Einblicke in zugrundeliegende Mechanismen geben. Auf ähnliche Weise sind die untersuchten Maßnahmen in größere Kategorien zusammengefasst, die keine detaillierteren Aussagen erlauben. Schließlich ist auch noch unbekannt, ob die angebotenen Maßnahmen tatsächlich genutzt werden und ob deren Nutzung zur Verringerung der Lohnlücke beiträgt oder das Angebot alleine ausreicht." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Gender Norms and the Labor Market (2026)
Zitatform
Cortés, Patricia, Jisoo Hwang, Jessica Pan & Uta Schönberg (2026): Gender Norms and the Labor Market. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 34716), Cambridge, Mass, 42 S.
Abstract
"Despite substantial convergence in men's and women's economic roles, gender gaps in labor market outcomes persist across countries. This article provides a unified framework for understanding how gender norms shape economic behavior, distinguishing between internalized norms—preferences and beliefs tied to gender identity—and external norms arising from peer pressure and social coordination. We first document cross-country and within-country variation in gender attitudes, alongside gradual but uneven shifts toward more egalitarian views. We then review empirical evidence on the origins, persistence, and transmission of gender norms, and their effects on human capital accumulation, labor supply, wages, and policy take-up. The review highlights both the durability of gender norms and the mechanisms through which policies, institutions, and media can induce norm change, with implications for the design of effective interventions." (Author'sabstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Beteiligte aus dem IAB
Schönberg, Uta; -
Literaturhinweis
Navigating Motherhood: Endogenous Penalties and Career Choice (2026)
Zitatform
Coskun, Sena, Husnu Dalgic & Yasemin Özdemir (2026): Navigating Motherhood: Endogenous Penalties and Career Choice. (IAB-Discussion Paper 02/2026), Nürnberg, 57 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2602
Abstract
"Wir dokumentieren, dass Frauen sich vor der Geburt ihres ersten Kindes strategisch in „familienfreundliche” Sektoren sortieren, die durch geringere Erfahrungswerte, aber niedrigere Einbußen pro Kind gekennzeichnet sind. Dieses antizipatorische Sortieren stellt ex-ante Kosten der Mutterschaft dar, die von herkömmlichen Maßen für die Child Penalty gänzlich übersehen werden. Wir entwickeln ein Modell heterogener Akteure für Berufswahl und Fertilität, um diese „Sorting Penalty” zu quantifizieren. Unser zentrales Ergebnis ist, dass der direkte Einkommensverlust durch berufliches Sortieren zwar gering ist, dieses Resultat jedoch die hohe Wirksamkeit der primären Instrumente offenbart, mit denen Frauen Mutterschaft bewältigen: die Qualität-Quantität (Q-Q) und Zeitverwendung (T-E) Trade-offs. Durch empirische Evidenz für beide Spielräume zeigen wir, dass Frauen keine passiven Subjekte von Child Penalties sind; sie sind aktive, strategische Akteurinnen, die diese feineren Abwägungen nutzen, um familiäre Ziele zu erreichen und gleichzeitig berufliche Kosten zu mildern. Unsere Ergebnisse unterstreichen: Da Fertilität und Benachteiligungen zutiefst endogen sind, werden politische Rahmenbedingungen, die diese Trade-offs ausschließen, die Fertilitätsreaktionen und Karrierekosten von Interventionen grundlegend falsch berechnen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
(Not) Thinking About the Future: Financial Information and Maternal Labor Supply (2026)
Zitatform
Costa-Ramón, Ana, Michaela Slotwinski, Ursina Schaede & Anne Ardila Brenøe (2026): (Not) Thinking About the Future: Financial Information and Maternal Labor Supply. In: The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Jg. 141, H. 2, S. 1335-1382. DOI:10.1093/qje/qjag003
Abstract
"Does information about the long-run financial costs of reduced labor supply increase mothers ’ working hours? We document descriptively that long-term financial factors are not top of mind when mothers decide on their employment level. Moreover, a substantial share of women holds overly optimistic expectations about pension receipt and wage growth under part-time work. In a large-scale field experiment in Switzerland, we randomly assign mothers working part-time as teachers to receive objective information about the long-run costs of reduced labor supply. The treatment increases both demand for financial information and future labor supply plans, in particular among women who underestimate the costs of part-time work. Leveraging linked employer administrative data one year post-intervention, we find that this group of mothers increases working hours by 7 percent. These findings underscore that policies reducing information frictions in labor supply decisions may help address remaining gender gaps in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender pay gap trends across STEM fields: an empirical analysis (2026)
Zitatform
Cruz, João, Amélia Bastos, Sara Falcão Casaca & Isabel Proença (2026): Gender pay gap trends across STEM fields: an empirical analysis. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 46, H. 3-4, S. 426-447. DOI:10.1108/ijssp-02-2025-0090
Abstract
"Purpose: This paper analyses the gender pay gap (GPG) in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) in Portugal over the past decade, utilising official national earnings data. Design/methodology/approach: A decomposition method is applied to estimate the explained and unexplained components of the GPG both at the mean and across the distribution quartiles of national earnings. This methodology can also be applied to other sectors or countries, providing robust statistical and econometric results relating to the GPG. Findings: The results show that the GPG varies heterogeneously across STEM fields. In occupations relating to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), which are included in STEM, the GPG has been widening in recent years, in contrast to the overall trend in the labour force. Originality/value: The GPG in STEM is under-researched, with existing literature indicating a structural gap in these occupations. Understanding this GPG is essential for its reduction and for maximising human capital, which is vital for social and economic growth. This article aims to contribute to the discussion on this topic and offers potential policy recommendations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender and Parenthood Differences in Work Time Fragmentation in the United States: The Moderating Role of Occupational Class (2026)
Zitatform
Cui, Sizhan, Zhuofei Lu & Senhu Wang (2026): Gender and Parenthood Differences in Work Time Fragmentation in the United States: The Moderating Role of Occupational Class. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 182, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11205-026-03815-x
Abstract
"Work time fragmentation refers to the number of distinct work episodes in a day, indicating disruptions in work schedules and the degree of workday fragmentation. With the expansion of flexible labor markets in the U.S., work time fragmentation has become more prevalent. Although gender and parenthood differences in labor market outcomes and family responsibilities are well studied, their manifestation in work time fragmentation remains underexplored. Using data from the American Time Use Survey 2003–2023 and OLS regression models, this study is the first to examine gender and parenthood differences in work time fragmentation and their variation by occupational class. Findings indicate that women experience greater fragmentation than men. For women, those with dependent children, particularly those with young children, show greater fragmentation than women without coresidential children. This pattern is most pronounced among those in higher occupational classes. For men, there is no evidence showing that there is a difference in work time fragmentation intensity by parenthood status or occupational class. The findings underscore the importance of equitable parental leave, shared caregiving responsibilities, and supportive workplace structures in addressing these dynamics and promoting equity in work-family relationships." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Supporting Mothers Back to Work: Experimental Evidence on Employment, Fertility, and Child Outcomes (2026)
Zitatform
Del Boca, Daniela, Luca Favero & Chiara Pronzato (2026): Supporting Mothers Back to Work: Experimental Evidence on Employment, Fertility, and Child Outcomes. (IZA discussion paper / IZA Network @ LISER 18630), Bonn: IZA Network @ LISER, 43 S.
Abstract
"Many advanced economies face persistently low fertility alongside rapid population ageing, raising concerns about economic sustainability and demographic balance. Addressing these challenges requires both sustained labor market participation among the working-age population and conditions that support childbearing. These objectives place women, and particularly mothers, at the center of the demographic debate, as motherhood remains a key turning point in employment trajectories and family formation. Using experimental evidence from an intervention targeting mothers who curtailed employment due to childcare responsibilities, the paper finds that improving work-family reconciliation can support mothers' labor market reintegration, promote investments in existing children, and, under conditions of greater stability, strengthen fertility desires." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Antecedents of Motherhood Penalties: The Work-Care Preferences of Socioeconomically Diverse Expectant Mothers (2026)
Zitatform
Deming, Sarah M. (2026): Antecedents of Motherhood Penalties: The Work-Care Preferences of Socioeconomically Diverse Expectant Mothers. In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 47, H. 1, S. 74-94. DOI:10.1007/s10834-025-10071-7
Abstract
"This study contributes to the work-family literature in three ways. First, it challenges the emphasis on the economic impacts of motherhood by introducing a framework—Work-Care Preferences (WCP)—that acknowledges how women’s personal orientations to paid work and to motherhood converge to create varied preferences for how (or whether) to best combine the two. Second, documenting how women’s WCPs are influenced by socioeconomic status illuminates a previously unidentified mechanism by which motherhood penalties are unequally experienced. Lastly, by highlighting how expectant mothers’ personal conceptions of paid work influence their subsequent WCPs, it offers opportunities to design workplace and policy-level interventions to support maternal employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Household taxation, nonlinear occupations, and gender gaps (2026)
Zitatform
Denderski, Piotr & Tim Obermeier (2026): Household taxation, nonlinear occupations, and gender gaps. (CEP discussion paper / Centre for Economic Performance 2140), London, 23 S., App.
Abstract
"An enduring source of gender inequality is that some high-paying ("nonlinear") occupations penalize balancing work and household time commitments, as emphasized by Goldin (2014). We ask how household taxation interacts with these occupational differences to shape gender gaps in hours, wages, and occupational choice, and whether these differences materially affect the impact of tax reforms. We address these questions in a structural Roy model of household labor supply with occupation-specific earnings-hours nonlinearities and progressive taxation, calibrated to US data. We find that a balanced-budget switch to separately filed progressive taxes significantly reduces the gender gaps in hours and occupational choice, while the wage gap declines more modestly. These improvements arise because the reform lowers marginal tax rates for secondary earners and raises them for primary earners. By contrast, proportional taxation yields much smaller reductions in gender gaps. In both reforms, the standard labor-supply channel accounts for roughly two-thirds of the overall taxable- income response, while the convex earnings-hours relationship amplifies these effects and explains most of the remainder. Occupational switching contributes little because those who do switch are negatively selected." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does Field of Study Shape the Gender Wage Gap? The Role of Migration Background (2026)
Zitatform
Devos, Louise, François Rycx, Thomas Senterre & Mélanie Volral (2026): Does Field of Study Shape the Gender Wage Gap? The Role of Migration Background. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 1753), Essen, 33 S.
Abstract
"Using matched employer-employee data on more than 62,000 master's graduates, this paper examines how gender differences in wage returns to fields of study vary by migration background and how educational specialisation contributes to the gender wage gap. We estimate wage regressions and apply a decomposition approach to separate sorting across fields from differences in pay within fields. Returns vary widely, with law, economics and management, and science yielding the highest returns, and women earning less than men within all fields, especially in high-paying ones. First-generation immigrants from developing countries obtain the lowest returns regardless of field of study, while second-generation immigrants approach but do not fully match natives. Fields of study explain a substantial share of gender wage inequality among natives and second-generation immigrants, whereas among first-generation immigrants broader wage disadvantages dominate. Results further vary with the number of parents originating from developing countries and with age at arrival." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Commuting in dual-earner households: international gender differences with time use surveys (2026)
Zitatform
Echeverría, Lucía, J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal & José Alberto Molina (2026): Commuting in dual-earner households: international gender differences with time use surveys. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 24, H. 1, S. 303-325. DOI:10.1007/s11150-024-09726-5
Abstract
"Prior studies show men commute longer than women, often due to household responsibilities. However, research on commuting differences within couples is limited. This study examines gender gaps in commuting times and mode choices among dual-earner couples in Spain, Italy, South Korea, and the UK. Using Ordinary Least Squares regressions, we find that the presence of children significantly increases gender gaps in commuting times in Italy and the UK, supporting the household responsibility hypothesis. Conversely, no significant link between children and gender gaps is observed in Spain and Korea. Additionally, children’s presence affects commuting mode choices in Italy across all modes, and in Korea for public transit only, with Italian women showing the most changes in commuting mode when children are present." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Inequalities in early childcare strategies: Evidence from Dutch administrative data (2026)
Zitatform
Emery, Tom (2026): Inequalities in early childcare strategies: Evidence from Dutch administrative data. In: Advances in life course research, Jg. 67. DOI:10.1016/j.alcr.2026.100727
Abstract
"This study examines whether the well-documented socioeconomic gradient in formal childcare use is reflected in the timing, sequencing, and stability of childcare and employment strategies following the critical life course transition to parenthood. While higher-SES parents are consistently more likely to use formal childcare, the reasons for this disparity remain poorly understood principally due to data limitations and the complexity of household dynamics. Drawing on linked Dutch administrative data (2010–2019), we use multichannel sequence analysis to identify distinct “childcare strategies” across the first four years of children’s lives, capturing monthly trajectories of formal childcare use and parental employment. A subsequent multinomial regression models the association between these strategies and socioeconomic status. The results reveal wide variation in the stability, intensity, and timing of formal childcare use, closely intertwined with maternal employment patterns. Children from lower-SES households are more likely to experience complex, fragmented, and fragile childcare trajectories—characterized by delayed entry, irregular usage, and lower alignment with stable employment—confirming and extending findings from prior qualitative research. By quantifying these patterns across a full population cohort, the study demonstrates how childcare complexity itself reflects and reinforces broader social inequalities. We conclude that childcare policies must move beyond affordability to address accessibility, stability, and administrative complexity—particularly for parents with low incomes, precarious jobs, or self-employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Harmonising French and German administrative DADS-EDP and SIAB data: A practical guide on how to create comparable data sets on maternal employment (2026)
Filser, Andreas ; Achard, Pascal ; Amend, Inga Marie ; Gaede, Ida; Wagner, Sander ; Frodermann, Corinna ;Zitatform
Filser, Andreas, Pascal Achard, Inga Marie Amend, Corinna Frodermann, Ida Gaede & Sander Wagner (2026): Harmonising French and German administrative DADS-EDP and SIAB data. A practical guide on how to create comparable data sets on maternal employment. In: Journal for labour market research, Jg. 60, H. 1, 2026-05-08. DOI:10.1186/s12651-026-00430-8
Abstract
"Administrative data are increasingly used in social science research, including for studying the labour market consequences of motherhood. Yet despite the growing use of such data within countries, cross-national comparative research remains limited because administrative data require substantial harmonisation before meaningful comparisons are possible. In this paper, we harmonise two rich administrative data sets suitable for comparative research on maternal employment: the French DADS-EDP and the German SIAB. France and Germany present a compelling case for such comparisons given their differing norms and policies regarding childcare and maternal employment. We document our harmonisation decisions on data structure, sample selection, employment measurement, and key socio-economic variables, and provide the full Stata code as supplementary material. We illustrate the potential of the harmonised data by examining how maternal employment trajectories evolve over time in France, West Germany, and East Germany. The analysis reveals substantial cross-national and temporal variation in employment trajectories after childbirth, highlighting the value of harmonised administrative data for comparative research on maternal employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Stratification of post-birth labour supply in a high- and low- maternal employment regime (2026)
Zitatform
Filser, Andreas, Pascal Achard, Corinna Frodermann, Dana Müller & Sander Wagner (2026): Stratification of post-birth labour supply in a high- and low- maternal employment regime. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 102, 2026-01-30. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2026.101133
Abstract
"This paper compares the magnitude and stratification of motherhood employment penalties in France and Germany, two countries with contrasting institutional orientations towards maternal employment. While prior research has documented cross-national variation in the size of motherhood penalties, less is known about how macro-level contexts shape their stratification across socioeconomic groups. Using harmonized administrative employment data on 18,948 French and 72,632 German mothers, who were employed prior to first birth between 1997 and 2014, we estimate labour market participation trajectories for five years following childbirth. Across both countries, women with higher pre-birth income, higher education, and employment in higher-wage firms experience substantially smaller reductions in labour supply, with income emerging as the strongest stratifying dimension. Motherhood penalties are markedly smaller in France, amounting to less than one-third of the reduction observed in Germany. Yet penalties in France are more strongly stratified: mothers in the lowest income quintile experience participation losses 3.14 times larger than mothers in the highest quintile, compared to a ratio of 1.17 in Germany. Within Germany, East German mothers face smaller but more stratified penalties than West German mothers. Finally, we test whether the macro-level pattern of larger penalties associated with weaker stratification also generalizes to 65 NUTS-2 regions. We find no systematic association between the size and stratification of motherhood penalties at the regional level. The findings suggest that institutional contexts supporting high maternal employment reduce overall penalties but pose particular challenges for mothers from lower socio-economic backgrounds who reintegrate less rapidly into the labour market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
A Marriage Premium for Whom? Sexual Identity, Relationship Status and Earnings (2026)
Zitatform
Fortes de Lena, Fernanda & Diederik Boertien (2026): A Marriage Premium for Whom? Sexual Identity, Relationship Status and Earnings. In: Journal of Marriage and Family, Jg. 88, H. 1, S. 81-99. DOI:10.1111/jomf.70005
Abstract
"Objective: This article aims to understand how relationship status is associated with earnings among LGB people. Background: Previous research has found that marriage is related to higher earnings for men and lower earnings for women, but has not often considered whether this holds across different sexual identities. Method: We use the longitudinal Understanding Society data from the UK to show how the earnings of LGB individuals are associated with relationship status (single, non-residential partner, residential partner, married). Results: Cohabiting or married men generally earn more compared to single men, regardless of sexual identity. However, gay men's earnings only increase after marrying, whereas heterosexual and bisexual men's earnings increase after entering any co-residential relationship. This suggests that gay men might receive more social support or employer approval after entering a normative relationship form. Heterosexual women start earning less after marriage, whereas the impact of changes in relationship status on earnings is relatively small and non-significant for bisexual and lesbian women. These results are largely explained by paid and unpaid work hours, suggesting that the division of labor within relationships lowers earnings among heterosexual women but not among LGB women. Conclusion: LGB women's earnings depend relatively little on changes in relationship status. At the same time, gay men only receive premiums related to having a partner once they marry." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Arbeits- und Betreuungsarrangements von Familien mit kleinen Kindern: Gesellschaftliche Einstellung zu Erwerbstätigkeit von Müttern und externer Kinderbetreuung (2026)
Zitatform
Frodermann, Corinna, Eileen Peters, Marie-Fleur Philipp & Claudia Wenzig (2026): Arbeits- und Betreuungsarrangements von Familien mit kleinen Kindern: Gesellschaftliche Einstellung zu Erwerbstätigkeit von Müttern und externer Kinderbetreuung. (IAB-Kurzbericht 02/2026), Nürnberg, 8 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.KB.2602
Abstract
"Die Förderung der Erwerbsintegration von Frauen und speziell von Müttern ist ein zentrales Thema der Arbeitsmarkt- und Gleichstellungspolitik. Entscheidend für eine Erwerbsaufnahme von Müttern sind dabei nicht nur die Bedingungen am Arbeitsmarkt und die vorhandenen Möglichkeiten der externen Kinderbetreuung, sondern auch die Einstellung zu Familie und Beruf. Vor diesem Hintergrund untersuchen die Autorinnen Normvorstellungen in der Bevölkerung zur außerhäuslichen Betreuung von Kindern und zur Erwerbstätigkeit von Müttern." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
Weiterführende Informationen
- Durchschnittliches Alter des Kindes, zu dem Frauen und Männer externe Kinderbetreuung und Erwerbstätigkeit der Mütter als angemessen empfinden
- Einstellung der Bevölkerung zur Erwerbstätigkeit von Müttern und zur externen Betreuung von Kindern
- Einflussgrößen der Einstellungen zur ganztägigen Kinderbetreuung und zur Vollzeiterwerbstätigkeit der Mütter
- Durchschnittliches Alter des Kindes, zu dem die Befragten externe Kinderbetreuung und Erwerbstätigkeit der Mütter als angemessen empfinden
- Anteile der Befragten, die eine externe Kinderbetreuung und eine Erwerbstätigkeit der Mütter bei einem bestimmten Alter des Kindes als angemessen empfinden
- Einstellungen von Frauen und Männern zur ganztägigen Kinderbetreuung und Vollzeiterwerbstätigkeit der Mütter - Unterschiede nach eigener Elternschaft
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Literaturhinweis
Der Gender-Pay-Gap wird kleiner – jedoch nicht in allen Regionen (2026)
Zitatform
Fuchs, Michaela, Anja Rossen, Antje Weyh & Gabriele Wydra-Somaggio (2026): Der Gender-Pay-Gap wird kleiner – jedoch nicht in allen Regionen. In: IAB-Forum H. 23.02.2026. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20260223.01
Abstract
"Zwar wird der Gender-Pay-Gap, also die Entgeltlücke zwischen Frauen und Männern, in Deutschland seit einigen Jahren langsam kleiner. Frauen verdienen im Schnitt aber nach wie vor deutlich weniger als Männer. Der Rückgang zeigt sich zudem nicht in allen Regionen Deutschlands: In 15 von 400 Kreisen ist der Gender-Pay-Gap zwischen 2019 und 2024 sogar gestiegen. Diese gegensätzlichen Entwicklungen hängen mit unterschiedlichen Veränderungen in der regionalen Lohn-, Betriebsgrößen- und Berufsstruktur zusammen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Regionale Unterschiede im Gender-Pay-Gap in Deutschland 2024 (2026)
Zitatform
Fuchs, Michaela, Anja Rossen, Antje Weyh & Gabriele Wydra-Somaggio (2026): Regionale Unterschiede im Gender-Pay-Gap in Deutschland 2024. (Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung. Aktuelle Daten und Indikatoren), Nürnberg, 16 S.
Abstract
"Die vorliegenden Auswertungen beinhalten Angaben zum Tagesentgelt sozialversicherungspflichtig vollzeitbeschäftigter Frauen und Männer sowie zum unbereinigten und bereinigten Gender-Pay-Gap in den Bundesländern und Kreisen Deutschlands für das Jahr 2024. Nähere Erläuterungen zu den Einflussfaktoren auf die unterschiedlichen regionalen Gender-Pay-Gaps sowie zur zeitlichen Entwicklung finden sich im IAB-Forumsbeitrag von Fuchs, Rossen, Weyh und Wydra-Somaggio (2026)." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)
Weiterführende Informationen
Weitere Informationen finden Sie in dem Beitrag im Online Magazin IAB-Forum -
Literaturhinweis
Invisible gaps: Women’s individual poverty risks and the gendered failings of the adult worker model (2026)
Zitatform
Gasior, Katrin, Silvia Avram & Daria Popova (2026): Invisible gaps: Women’s individual poverty risks and the gendered failings of the adult worker model. In: Economic Systems, Jg. 50, H. 2. DOI:10.1016/j.ecosys.2025.101363
Abstract
"Since the early 2000s, welfare states in Europe have shifted their primary focus from providing social protection against labour market risks to the activation of all individuals into employment. As a way to limit poverty risks, this strategy ignores the ‘care penalties’ many women face in the labour market. Official poverty statistics ignore intrahousehold inequalities in resource allocation, thereby possibly overestimating the economic resources of women. This study contributes to the literature on the gendered consequences of welfare policies by estimating poverty risks for men and women using individualised incomes and assessing the extent to which observed gender gaps in poverty risk can be linked to the adult worker model. Additionally, the role played by taxes and social transfers in mitigating the gender gap in individual poverty risk is examined. Results show that only around one third of women in Europe fit the standard full-time, year-round employment model. Inactive and unemployed women have particularly high individual poverty risks, but even women who work fulltime and are continuously employed are more prone to poverty than men, highlighting the role of gender pay gaps. Social transfers cushion some of the gendered gap in poverty risk, while direct taxes and social insurance contributions have a disequalizing effect at the bottom of income distribution, especially for workers in atypical employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
More Hours, More Work: Head Start Expansions Boost Maternal Employment (2026)
Gibbs, Chloe; Kose, Esra; Rosales-Rueda, Maria;Zitatform
Gibbs, Chloe, Esra Kose & Maria Rosales-Rueda (2026): More Hours, More Work: Head Start Expansions Boost Maternal Employment. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 34831), Cambridge, Mass, 35 S.
Abstract
"Women's employment remains highly sensitive to childcare constraints, making childcare availability a critical lever for supporting mothers' labor force attachment. We study the effects of expanded full-day programming in Head Start, using the 2016 federal funding initiative that targeted grantees with low full-day enrollment. Linking administrative program data, geo-coded center locations, and household data on employment, we estimate a difference-in-differences design by comparing mothers of young children in treated and untreated areas. The policy increased full-day enrollment by 19 percent and raised single mothers' employment (1.9%), hours (2.5%), and earnings (6.5%). Results show that extending program duration meaningfully improves maternal labor market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The Effect of Access to Legal Abortion on Fertility, Marriage, and Long-term Outcomes for Women (2026)
Zitatform
González, Libertad, Sergi Jiménez-Martín, Natalia Nollenberger & Judit Vall Castello (2026): The Effect of Access to Legal Abortion on Fertility, Marriage, and Long-term Outcomes for Women. In: The Economic Journal, Jg. 136, H. 674, S. 440-467. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueaf054
Abstract
"We evaluate the short- and long-term effects for women of access to legal, subsidized abortion. We find evidence that the legalization of abortion in Spain in 1985 led to an immediate decrease in births, more pronounced for younger women in provinces with a higher supply of abortion services. Affected women were more likely to graduate from high school, less likely to marry young, less likely to divorce in the long-term, and reported higher life satisfaction as adults. We find at most small reductions in completed fertility, while we do not find meaningful effects on labour market outcomes in the long run." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Temporal Signification of Careers and Organizational Return‐to‐Work Barriers After an Extended Career Break: Insights From Professional Women in the United Kingdom (2026)
Zitatform
Gupta, Renu, Gill Kirton & Suki Sian (2026): Temporal Signification of Careers and Organizational Return‐to‐Work Barriers After an Extended Career Break: Insights From Professional Women in the United Kingdom. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 33, H. 2, S. 412-428. DOI:10.1111/gwao.70050
Abstract
"In this article, we explore the phenomenon of professional women's childcare-related extended career breaks taken immediately or soon after maternity leave and organizational barriers experienced in their subsequent return to work. Applying a temporal lens to Barley's career model, we analyze how organizational objective clock-time and women's experience of subjective time in relation to extended career breaks mediate their understanding of organizational barriers in returning to work. Demonstrating the interlinkages between structure and agency, we present “continuity” and “presence” as two temporal career scripts that create specific return-to-work barriers for women professionals as they fall out of sync with time during the extended break and face temporal inequities upon return to the workplace. We establish that in the context of women professionals returning from childcare-related extended career breaks, structural elements outweigh individual agency. We conclude this article with a call for organizational support to overcome return barriers arising out of temporal career scripts. We also suggest that future research could usefully explore organizational policies and practices aimed at reintegrating and retaining professional women returning to work from extended childcare-related career breaks." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Fathers use of extended parental leave: exploring company barriers in Sweden (2026)
Zitatform
Haas, Linda & C. Philip Hwang (2026): Fathers use of extended parental leave: exploring company barriers in Sweden. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 29, H. 3, S. 386-407. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2024.2411026
Abstract
"In Sweden, men's parental leave rights are considered important for realizing gender equality. Men have the same compensated leave rights as women: three months each of nontransferable and transferable leave. Nevertheless, less than 20% of couples share leave equally (each taking 40% or more of all leave days). Understanding the circumstances under which fathers take leave beyond nontransferable months is important if equality is to be realized, yet few studies investigate this. Our survey of human resource directors in Sweden's top companies revealed extended leave use was not normative for fathers’ and especially male top managers and aspects of the gendered culture and structure of work organizations were associated with less extended leave use. Company awareness of parental leaves benefits for the company was significantly and independently related to fathers’ and top male managers extended leave use. Positive workplace attitudes and less job specialization increased fathers’ extended leave use. Companies’ setting fewer conditions encouraged more top male managers to take extended leave, as did a policy of managerial training to facilitate fathers’ leaves. Greater understanding of company barriers to fathers’ extended parental leave use may encourage companiesto remove those barriers which can increase fathers’ use of extended parental leave." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Has the Rise of Work from Home Reduced the Motherhood Penalty in the Labor Market? (2026)
Zitatform
Harrington, Emma & Matthew E. Kahn (2026): Has the Rise of Work from Home Reduced the Motherhood Penalty in the Labor Market? In: National Tax Journal, Jg. 79, H. 2, S. 507-527. DOI:10.1086/740865
Abstract
"When women become mothers, many step back from the workforce. Could work from home (WFH) mitigate this motherhood penalty, particularly in traditionally family-unfriendly careers? We leverage prepandemic technological changes that increased the feasibility of WFH in some college degrees but not others. In degrees where WFH increased, motherhood gaps in employment narrowed: for every 10 percent increase in WFH, mothers’ employment rates increased by 0.78 percentage points (or 0.94 percent) relative to other women’s. These changes are driven by occupations with inflexible time demands. Panel data show that women who could WFH before childbirth are less likely to exit the workforce." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender Differences in Parents’ Well-Being Reverse During Unemployment (2026)
Zitatform
Hendrick, Sara, Melissa J. Williams & Emily C. Bianchi (2026): Gender Differences in Parents’ Well-Being Reverse During Unemployment. In: Personality and social psychology bulletin, S. 1-19. DOI:10.1177/01461672261439419
Abstract
"Past research suggests that parenthood tends to predict well-being for men more than women. We propose that during involuntary unemployment, this pattern will reverse, such that parenthood will predict well-being for women more than men. Because breadwinning remains central to societal expectations of fatherhood, employment allows fathers to simultaneously fulfill parental and professional obligations. Typically, this reduces fathers’ role strain. However, we argue that unemployment may threaten both work and parent identities for fathers and therefore undermine well-being for fathers more than mothers. We find support for this hypothesis using a large, longitudinal study of unemployed individuals (Study 1) and a nationally representative sample (Study 2). Finally, a follow-up experiment (Study 3) supports our prediction that fathers are more likely than mothers to view paid employment as necessary for good parenting, which predicts their lower well-being during unemployment. This work contributes to research on parenthood, gender roles, and unemployment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
Aspekt auswählen:
Aspekt zurücksetzen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen
- Erwerbsbeteiligung von Männern
- Kinderbetreuung und Pflege
- Berufliche Geschlechtersegregation
- Berufsrückkehr – Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt
- Dual-Career-Couples
- Work-Life
- Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede
- Familienpolitische Rahmenbedingungen
- Aktive/aktivierende Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- Arbeitslosigkeit und passive Arbeitsmarktpolitik
- geografischer Bezug