Female breadwinner – Erwerbsentscheidungen von Frauen im Haushaltskontext
Nach wie vor ist die ungleiche Verteilung von Erwerbs- und Familienarbeit zwischen den Partnern der Regelfall. Traditionelle familiäre Arrangements werden dabei durch institutionelle Rahmenbedingungen bevorzugt. Die Folge ist, dass Frauen immer noch beruflich zurückstecken - auch wenn sie den Hauptteil des Haushaltseinkommens erarbeiten und damit die Rolle der Familienernährerin übernehmen.
Dieses Themendossier widmet sich den Bedingungen und Auswirkungen der Erwerbsentscheidung von Frauen sowie empirischen Studien, die sich mit der Arbeitsteilung der Partner im Haushaltskontext befassen.
Mit dem Filter „Autorenschaft“ können Sie auf IAB-(Mit-)Autorenschaft eingrenzen.
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Literaturhinweis
Are Gender Norms Shaped by Who Earns More? (2026)
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Brosch, Hanna, Elisabeth Grewenig, Philipp Lergetporer, Katharina Werner & Helen Zeidler (2026): Are Gender Norms Shaped by Who Earns More? (CESifo working paper 12674), München, 28 S.
Abstract
"Gender norms about parental labor supply are central to explaining persistent gender inequalities in the labor market, yet their causal determinants remain poorly understood. We examine whether people's gender attitudes are driven by mothers' and fathers' earnings, which may shape views about the efficient allocation of paid work and care. In a large-scale representative vignette experiment in Germany (N > 10,000), we randomly vary pre-childbirth earnings and measure whether respondents recommend that the mother (father) stay home with the child while the father (mother) works full-time. Without specifying earnings, 90% recommend that the mother stay home. This share remains high when we specify that the mother earns less (93%). When she earns more, the share drops sharply to 47%, yet nearly half of respondents still recommend that the mother stay home. This asymmetric response rejects a purely income-based explanation of gender norms. Thus, economic circumstances shape gender attitudes, but deeply rooted norms persist even when they conflict with financial incentives." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gender-specific labour market shocks and household bargaining power. (2026)
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Gihleb, Rania, Osea Giuntella & Dor Morag (2026): Gender-specific labour market shocks and household bargaining power. In: The Economic Journal. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueag060
Abstract
"Using machine learning and product-level data on single men’s and single women’s consumption patterns, we develop an index that quantifies the „gendered‟ nature of consumer goods. We use the index to investigate how gender-specific labour market shocks influence spending patterns within heterosexual households. Our findings reveal that industrial robot adoption, which worsened men’s relative economic position, shifted household consumption toward products predominantly purchased by single women. In contrast, the expansion of fracking, which boosted demand for young and less skilled men, yields suggestive but less robust evidence of increased spending on goods favoured by single men. Although neither shock significantly altered total spending on children’s products, robot exposure led to a reallocation of spending toward goods more commonly purchased for daughters than for sons." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Gendered reporting of housework across relative spousal income (2026)
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Syrda, Joanna (2026): Gendered reporting of housework across relative spousal income. In: Social science research, Jg. 134. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103303
Abstract
"The measured work that wives and husbands perform at home and in the labour market remains strongly gendered. Competing theoretical perspectives offer divergent predictions about how relative spousal income shapes the division of housework: exchange and bargaining models predict that the higher earner performs less domestic labour, whereas sociological accounts emphasize persistent traditional gender norms. Empirical findings mirror this divide, and existing research typically overlooks gendered reporting bias in household survey data.Using data from the 1999–2023 waves of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), this study examines whether the relationship between relative spousal income and housework depends on the gender of the household respondent. The PSID's rotating respondent design - where either spouse reports for the household - combined with within-household fixed effects and double-demeaned interaction models reveal asymmetries. When wives report, the association between relative income and housework aligns with exchange and bargaining theory. When husbands report, the same households exhibit a curvilinear pattern consistent with gender deviance neutralization. Respondent gender therefore fundamentally shapes empirical conclusions about the income-housework relationship, indicating that gender norms structure not only domestic labour but also its survey representation.Approximately one quarter of couples switch respondents over time, and these effects are identified from this subset. That strong asymmetries emerge even among more egalitarian households underscores the importance of gendered reporting. Methodologically, the findings show that conventional fixed effects models attenuate respondent-contingent nonlinearities, whereas double-demeaned estimators that control for both unit and time effects recover sharper and theoretically coherent patterns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author. Published by Elsevier Inc.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
When Mothers Out-Earn Fathers: Effects on Fathers' Decisions to Take Paternity and Parental Leave (2025)
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Biasi, Paola, Maria De Paola & Francesca Gioia (2025): When Mothers Out-Earn Fathers: Effects on Fathers' Decisions to Take Paternity and Parental Leave. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17601), Bonn, 36 S.
Abstract
"This study investigates the influence of the male breadwinner norm on fathers' decisions regarding childcare responsibilities. We study the complex interplay between economic factors and gender norms in shaping the division of household labor within families by analyzing the impact a breadwinning mother has on fathers' choices regarding paternity leave (fully subsidized) and parental leave (partially or not subsidized). We exploit administrative data, provided by the Italian National Security Institute (INPS), including demographic and working characteristics of both parents together with information on the use of paternity and parental leave by fathers in the 2013-2023 period. We find that, in line with the "doing gender" hypothesis, when the leave is fully subsidized, as for paternity leave, fathers are less likely to engage in childcare when their wives earn more than they do. In contrast, this dynamic does not apply in cases of parental leave, where the economic costs of aligning with the gender norm are substantial. The effects we find are robust when replacing the actual probability of there being an out-earning mother with the potential probability and are amplified by the salience of the gender identity norm." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Wage Risk and Government and Spousal Insurance (2025)
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De Nardi, Mariacristina, Giulio Fella & Gonzalo Paz-Pardo (2025): Wage Risk and Government and Spousal Insurance. In: The Review of Economic Studies, Jg. 92, H. 2, S. 954-980. DOI:10.1093/restud/rdae042
Abstract
"The extent to which households can self-insure depends on family structure and wage risk. We calibrate a model of couples and singles’ savings and labour supply under two types of wage processes. The first wage process is the canonical—age-independent, linear—one that is typically used to evaluate government insurance provision. The second wage process is a flexible one. We use our model to evaluate the optimal mix of the two most common types of means-tested benefits—IW versus income floor. The canonical wage process underestimates wage persistence for women and thus implies that IW benefits should account for most benefit income. In contrast, the richer wage process that matches the wage data well, implies that the income floor should be the main benefit source, similarly to the system in place in the U.K. This stresses that allowing for rich wage dynamics is important to properly evaluate policy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Do Mothers’ Occupation-Specific Skills Impact Children’s Developmental Processes? (2025)
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García-Sierra, Alicia (2025): Do Mothers’ Occupation-Specific Skills Impact Children’s Developmental Processes? In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 100. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2025.101102
Abstract
"This study examines whether mothers’ occupation-specific skills influence children’s development. I argue that while education is a valuable proxy for parental skills, it fails to capture an important dimension of human capital: the skills parents acquire through their occupational experiences. Parents enhance their human capital through on-the-job learning, with occupation-specific expertise becoming integral to their skill sets. Combining longitudinal family data (NLSY79-CYA) and the O*NET dataset, I employ two-way fixed effects, inverse probability weighting, and asymmetric fixed effects models. I exploit changes in the required skill levels of mothers’ occupations following job switches. Results indicate that when mothers transition to roles requiring higher levels of mathematical skills, their children’s mathematical abilities improve. Similar trends are observed for literacy skills, although the effects are less consistently robust. Additionally, longer maternal job tenure amplifies these effects, which are primarily driven by increases in skill requirements rather than decreases. Furthermore, children in high-SES families benefit more from increases in their mothers’ occupational skill requirements than children in low-SES families." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does the Added Worker Effect Matter? (2025)
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Guner, Nezih, Yuliya A. Kulikova & Arnau Valladares-Esteban (2025): Does the Added Worker Effect Matter? In: Review of Economic Dynamics, Jg. 56. DOI:10.1016/j.red.2025.101271
Abstract
"In the US, the likelihood of a married woman entering the labor force in a given month increases by 60% if her husband loses his job, known as the added worker effect. However, only 1.5% to 3.5% of married women entering the labor force in a given month can be added workers. This raises the question of whether the added worker effect can significantly impact aggregate labor market outcomes. Building on Shimer (2012), we introduce a new methodology to evaluate how joint transitions of married couples across labor market states affect aggregate participation, employment, and unemployment rates. Our results show that the added worker effect significantly impacts aggregate outcomes, increasing married women's participation and employment by 0.72 and 0.65 percentage points each month. Additionally, the added worker effect reduces the cyclicality of married women's participation and unemployment, lowering the correlation between GDP's cyclical components and participation by 4.5 percentage points and unemployment by 8 percentage points." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Couples' division of paid work and rising income inequality: A study of 21 OECD countries (2025)
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Herzberg-Druker, Efrat (2025): Couples' division of paid work and rising income inequality: A study of 21 OECD countries. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 99. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2025.101084
Abstract
"Numerous scholars have explored the association between women's changing employment patterns and the changing income inequality in recent decades. While most studies indicate that increased women's employment reduces household inequality, a few suggest the opposite effect. This research investigated whether shifts in the division of paid work (i.e., changes in the working hours) among heterosexual couples, as compared to changes in women's work alone, contribute to changes in income inequality. It also examined whether the selection of couples into the different types of division of paid work based on their level of education is a mechanism underlying the growing inequality. Based on counterfactual analyses of data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS), encompassing 21 OECD countries, the findings demonstrate shifts in couples' division of paid work, particularly the increase in fulltime dual-earner households, are associated with rising income inequality in most countries studied. However, changes in educational attainment were not found to be the mechanism underlying the association between changes in couples' division of paid work and changes in income inequality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Who picks up the slack? Understanding spousal responses to unemployment spells (2025)
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Kawano, Laura, Sara LaLumia, Shanthi Ramnath & Michael Stevens (2025): Who picks up the slack? Understanding spousal responses to unemployment spells. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 96. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2025.102732
Abstract
"We use a large panel of married households to update estimated added worker effects. In response to a primary earner’s job loss, secondary earners are 1.1 to 2.4 percentage points more likely to work and compensate for 3.6 to 5.1 percent of the displaced worker’s lost earnings. When a secondary earner is displaced, spousal employment is unchanged but there is a substantial earnings reduction. These small compensatory responses are explained by an increased probability that the nondisplaced spouse exits employment, either through correlated unemployment shocks or retirement. Conditional on relative-earner status, sex-based differences in added worker effects are small." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Men’s and women’s aversion to female breadwinning: Linking individual attitudes to macro-level contexts (2025)
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Lee, Sangsoo (2025): Men’s and women’s aversion to female breadwinning: Linking individual attitudes to macro-level contexts. In: Social science research, Jg. 132. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103233
Abstract
"Despite the increased prevalence of female breadwinning (i.e., marriages in which the wife outearns her husband) across the globe, our understanding of individuals’ attitudes toward such relationships remains limited. Using the seventh wave of the World Values Survey, this study examines how macro-level contexts are related to men’s and women’s aversion to female breadwinning. There are four key findings. First, men, on average, exhibit a greater aversion to female breadwinning compared to women. Second, in countries with greater macro-level gender equality, both men and women are less averse to female breadwinning. Third, in countries with higher rates of men’s unemployment, there is a wider gender gap in aversion to female breadwinning. This trend is primarily driven by men’s heightened aversion to female breadwinning in such countries, which suggests men may respond to economic uncertainty by overemphasizing their roles as primary breadwinners to bolster their endangered masculinity. Fourth, in countries with higher levels of economic development, both men and women are less averse to female breadwinning, resulting in a narrower gender gap. This study highlights the importance of linking individual attitudes toward female breadwinning to macro-level contexts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Telecommuting and division of domestic work: the role of gender role attitudes in Germany (2025)
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Leshchenko, Olga & Heejung Chung (2025): Telecommuting and division of domestic work: the role of gender role attitudes in Germany. In: European Sociological Review, S. 1-16. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcaf046
Abstract
"Telecommuting is often portrayed as a work-life balance measure. Though, in theory, telecommuting can provide workers with more time for leisure and family, due to the boundary blurring between work and life spheres, it can exacerbate gender inequalities by pushing women to carry out more domestic work while increasing men’s time in paid work. Empirically, the evidenceis mixed. We extend the debate by exploring how individuals’ gender role attitudes (GRA) moderate the relationship between telecommuting and the division of domestic work. We apply hybrid models to the German Family Panel data. The data covers the timespan from 2008 to 2021, which includes the unique COVID-19 pandemic. Results show that GRA matter. When getting access to telecommuting, egalitarian men increased their contribution to childcare, while traditional men did not. Similarly, telecommuting traditional women increased their childcare contribution. The pattern remained the same during the expansion of telecommuting due to the COVID-19 pandemic: only telecommuting traditional women and telecommuting egalitarian men increased their childcare contribution. The results of this study suggest that telecommuting has the potential to serve as a ‘great equaliser’. However, achieving this requires actively promoting more egalitarian views on gender roles." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does a Civil Service Job Matter? The Influence of Civil Service Employment on the Transition to the First and the Second Child for Women and Men in Germany (2025)
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Löwe, Paul Severin (2025): Does a Civil Service Job Matter? The Influence of Civil Service Employment on the Transition to the First and the Second Child for Women and Men in Germany. In: Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, Jg. 77, H. 3, S. 321-354. DOI:10.1007/s11577-025-01017-w
Abstract
"In dieser Studie wird der Einfluss einer Beschäftigung im öffentlichen Dienst im Vergleich zur Privatwirtschaft auf die Übergangsrate zum ersten und zweiten Kind untersucht. Der öffentliche Dienst wird häufig mit einem familienfreundlichen Arbeitsumfeld in Verbindung gebracht, das die Möglichkeit bietet, einen Beitrag zur Lösung des gesellschaftlichen Problems der niedrigen Geburtenrate zu leisten. In anderen europäischen Ländern wurde ein solcher Einfluss nachgewiesen, aber in Deutschland fehlte bisher eine Analyse auf individueller Ebene. Unter Verwendung von Daten aus dem Deutschen Familienpanel (Pairfam) nutzen wir diskrete Ereignisverlaufsmodelle in einer Piecewise-constant-Spezifikation, um den Übergang zum ersten Kind in Abhängigkeit von der Beschäftigung im öffentlichen Dienst oder in der Privatwirtschaft zu berechnen. Wir finden einen inhaltlich bedeutenden und statistisch signifikanten positiven Einfluss der Beschäftigung im öffentlichen Dienst auf den Übergang zum zweiten Kind für Frauen. Für Männer wird ein inhaltlich bedeutender, aber statistisch nicht signifikanter negativer Einfluss auf den Übergang zum zweiten Kind festgestellt. Weder für Frauen noch für Männer lässt sich ein inhaltlich bedeutender oder statistisch signifikanter Einfluss auf den Übergang zum ersten Kind feststellen. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die Beschäftigung im öffentlichen Dienst einen Ansatzpunkt zur Beeinflussung der Fertilität, insbesondere nach der Geburt, bietet." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Gender norms and child penalties (2025)
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Rafols, Radine (2025): Gender norms and child penalties. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 97. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2025.102770
Abstract
"I study how early gender beliefs shape the labor market consequences of parenthood. Drawing on panel data from the NLSY79, I document sharp and persistent gender gaps in wages, hours, employment, and earnings following childbirth. Mothers with egalitarian norms exhibit stronger labor force attachment and suffer smaller penalties across all outcomes. To understand mechanisms, I demonstrate that gender norms affect decisions that typically correlate with labor market success. A causal mediation analysis reveals that the indirect effect of norm beliefs on fertility explain a sizable share of the gap between modern and traditional mothers, while education, marriage timing, and occupational sorting play more limited roles." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
How has the partner influenced the spouse’s employment situation in Spain before and during Covid-19? (2025)
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Rodríguez Hernández, José Enrique (2025): How has the partner influenced the spouse’s employment situation in Spain before and during Covid-19? In: Journal for labour market research, Jg. 59. DOI:10.1186/s12651-025-00417-x
Abstract
"This paper addresses issues not previously analyzed by studying the influence that the partner had on the employment situation of the spouse in Spain in the year prior to the health crisis and in the first two years of the pandemic. The results suggest that the recent Covid-19 crisis does not seem to have significantly aggravated the traditional division between paid and domestic work. The results further show significant gender differences and underscore how female employment in Spain has been strongly conditioned by the employment situation of the partner and their relative level of education." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Exploring the Alternatives to the Male-Breadwinner Model – The Implications for Social Policy Study (2025)
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Saxonberg, Steven (2025): Exploring the Alternatives to the Male-Breadwinner Model – The Implications for Social Policy Study. In: Social Policy and Society, Jg. 24, H. 1, S. 6-15. DOI:10.1017/S1474746424000113
Abstract
"This article begins by discussing some of the main approaches that have emerged to gender and family policy, before proceeding to discuss more modern trends. It begins by discussing institutional approaches, such as the male-breadwinner model, defamilialisation, degenderisation. Then it discusses cultural approaches, such as the national ideals of care, gendered moral rationalities, and Hakim’s preference theory. Then this article continues by briefly discussing attempts to broaden the discussion by bringing in children (including through the capabilities approach) and by adding an intersectional perspective." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Family Income Dynamics 1970-2018: Putting the Pieces Together (2025)
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Shiu, Ji-Liang, Sisi Zhang & Peter Gottschalk (2025): Family Income Dynamics 1970-2018: Putting the Pieces Together. In: Journal of labor economics, Jg. 43, H. S1, S. S123-S151. DOI:10.1086/732769
Abstract
"This paper examines the driving forces of family income dynamics by developing a unified framework to estimate permanent and transitory variation in head earnings, spouse earnings, and transfer income, as well as permanent and transitory correlations between these income sources. A complete decomposition using the PSID 1970 – 2018 shows that transitory variation in head earnings alone accounts for more than half of the total family income inequality. Insurance against transitory shocks to head earnings comes primarily from transfer income rather than spouse earnings. Both permanent and transitory variations in spouse earnings have an equalizing effect on family income inequality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Beliefs About Maternal Labor Supply (2024)
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Boneva, Teodora, Marta Golin, Katja Kaufmann & Christopher Rauh (2024): Beliefs About Maternal Labor Supply. (CRC TR 224 discussion paper series / EPoS Collaborative Research Center Transregio 224 517), Bonn, 86 S.
Abstract
"We provide representative evidence on the perceived returns to maternal labor supply. A mother's decision to work is perceived to have sizable impacts on child skills, family outcomes, and the mother's future labor market outcomes. Beliefs about the impact of additional household income can account for some, but not all, of the perceived positive effects. Perceived returns are predictive of labor supply intentions under different policy scenarios related to childcare availability and quality, two factors that are also perceived as important. An information experiment reveals that providing information about benefits of mothers working causally affects labor supply intentions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Marriage Market and Labor Market Sorting (2024)
Calvo, Paula; Reynoso, Ana; Lindenlaub, Ilse;Zitatform
Calvo, Paula, Ilse Lindenlaub & Ana Reynoso (2024): Marriage Market and Labor Market Sorting. In: The Review of Economic Studies, Jg. 91, H. 6, S. 3316-3361. DOI:10.1093/restud/rdae010
Abstract
"We develop a new equilibrium model in which households’ labor supply choices form the link between sorting on the marriage market and sorting on the labor market. We first show that in theory, the nature of home production—whether partners’ hours are complements or substitutes—shapes equilibrium labor supply as well as marriage and labour market sorting. We then estimate our model using German data to empirically assess the nature of home production, and find that spouses’ home hours are complements. We investigate to what extent complementarity in home hours drives sorting and inequality. We find that home production complementarity strengthens positive marriage sorting and reduces the gender gap in hours and in labor sorting. This puts significant downward pressure on the gender wage gap and on within-household income inequality, but fuels between-household inequality. Our estimated model sheds new light on the sources of inequality in today’s Germany, and—by identifying important shifts in home production technology toward more complementarity—on the evolution of inequality over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The emergence of procyclical fertility: The role of breadwinner women (2024)
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Coskun, Sena & Husnu C. Dalgic (2024): The emergence of procyclical fertility: The role of breadwinner women. In: Journal of monetary economics, Jg. 142, 2023-10-11. DOI:10.1016/j.jmoneco.2023.10.004
Abstract
"Die Fertilität in den USA weist ein zunehmend prozyklisches Muster auf. Wir argumentieren, dass dieses Muster dem Ernährerstatus von Frauen geschuldet ist: (i) der Anteil der Frauen am gesamten Familieneinkommen ist über die Zeit gestiegen; (ii) Frauen arbeiten mit größerer Wahrscheinlichkeit in relativ stabilen und antizyklischen Branchen, während Männer eher in volatilen und prozyklischen Branchen tätig sind. Dies führt zu einem antizyklischen Einkommensgefälle zwischen den Geschlechtern, da Frauen in Rezessionen zu Ernährerinnen werden, was einen Versicherungseffekt des Fraueneinkommens bewirkt. Unser quantitativer Rahmen besteht aus einem allgemeinen Gleichgewichts-OLG-Modell mit endogener Fertilität und Humankapital. Wir zeigen, dass die Veränderung der Zyklizität der Geschlechterbeschäftigung 38 bis 44 Prozent des Auftretens von prozyklischer Fertilität erklären kann. Unsere kontrafaktische Analyse zeigt, dass in einer Welt, in der Männer Krankenpfleger und Frauen Bauarbeiter werden, eine antizyklische Fertilität zu beobachten sein würde, allerdings auf Kosten einer geringeren Humankapitalakkumulation, da sich die Familien bei der Abwägung zwischen Qualität und Quantität stärker auf die Quantität konzentrieren." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Relative income within the household, gender norms, and well-being (2024)
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Gihleb, Rania, Osea Giuntella & Luca Stella (2024): Relative income within the household, gender norms, and well-being. In: PLoS ONE, Jg. 19. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0306180
Abstract
"This study examines the effects of relative household income on individual well-being, mental health, and physical health in Germany. Consistent with previous studies, we document a dip in the distribution of households in which the wife out-earns the husband. Using a regression discontinuity design, we show that husbands in couples in which the wife earns just more exhibit lower satisfaction with life, work, and health, and report worse physical health. Women in these couples report lower satisfaction with life and health, and worse mental health. Results on life, work, and health satisfaction among women are more pronounced in West Germany, consistent with previous evidence of gender norm differences between East and West Germany." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))