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Bairoh, Susanna, Satu Pyöriä & Niklas Mäkinen (2026): Disaggregating Gender Income Disparities in STEM: Cohort and Family Factors in a Nordic Welfare State. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 113-134. DOI:10.1177/09500170251366157

Abstract

"The article examines the income trajectories of women and men in STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) in Finland, a country within the Nordic labour market context that strives for gender equality. The study uses total population register data from Finnish STEM degree holders with at least a bachelor’s degree, aged 30–40 years, selecting cohorts born in 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975 and 1980 (N = 31,865). This study estimates how cohort, becoming a parent, and co-residing with a spouse affect income trajectories for women and men. The findings reveal persistent gender income disparities across cohorts, with economic turbulence potentially widening the differences. The results support the motherhood penalty and, unexpectedly, address a ‘living-alone penalty’ for men. Even with a design examining STEM graduates at the same career stage, gender differences remain significant and are not alleviated by the Nordic welfare state context." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chalermsook, Porjai, Pekka Ilmakunnas & Rudiger von Arnim (2026): Exports, Gender Inequality, and Family Commitment. In: Labour, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 74-100. DOI:10.1111/labr.70007

Abstract

"This paper examines how exporting firms, gender, and family commitments interact to shape wage disparities. Using Finnish matched employer–employee data, we estimate wage equations that control for firm, worker, and match-specific unobservables. While exporting firms do not exhibit a wider gender wage gap overall, women with young children face additional short-run wage penalties, as shown by an event-study analysis that reveals a temporary but pronounced gap in the early post-childbirth years. These penalties are concentrated in occupations with greater temporal rigidity and limited scheduling flexibility, highlighting workplace flexibility constraints as a key mechanism. The findings suggest that the interaction between export-related temporal demands and caregiving responsibilities contributes to gendered wage dynamics. These results also raise questions about the continuing relevance of gender norms that disadvantage female employees, even in a context with strong public support for parental leave and childcare in Finland." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Silliman, Mikko & Juuso Mäkinen (2026): Life-Cycle Effects of Public Childcare: Evidence on Children and Their Parents. (CESifo working paper 12372), München, 102 S.

Abstract

"This paper provides large-scale evidence linking the economic effects of childcare programs to social skills measured in adulthood. We examine Finland's first national public childcare program, and document that it increased parental labor supply - through retirement - while reducing the intergenerational persistence of income. Critically, we leverage Finnish Defence Forces data on the near population of males to show that effects on children's adult income are underlied by lasting effects on social skills. Further, we show that life-cycle cost-effectiveness estimates based on the assumption of constant effects after typical observation windows can considerably overestimate the net costs of public childcare." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Berglund, Tomas, Jørgen Svalund, Tuomo Alasoini, Katrín Ólafsdóttir, Stine Rasmussen, Johan Røed Steen & Pekka Varje (2025): Gendered Labor Markets and Occupational Change in the Nordics. In: Nordic journal of working life studies, S. 1-23. DOI:10.18291/njwls.160118

Abstract

"Recent research on changes in the occupational structure in the Nordic region points in different directions. Some studies indicate upgrading of jobs with better quality, advanced skill requirements, and higher wages, while others show tendencies toward polarization in the skill distribution of jobs. The present article finds gendered patterns of upgrading or polarization in the occupational structure in the Nordic countries in the years 2012–2019. The changes in the occupational structure have been more beneficial for women, who increasingly occupy higher-level positions. Especially, the public sector has served as a vehicle for high-level female positions. While previous research has stressed technological change, especially digitalization as the primary driver of change, this article argues that developments in the public sector also need to be considered to fully understand occupational change in the Nordic region." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gruber, Jonathan, Tuomas Kosonen & Kristiina Huttunen (2025): Paying moms to stay home: Short and long run effects on parents and children. In: Journal of Public Economics, Jg. 251. DOI:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105496

Abstract

"We study the impacts of the Finnish Home Care Allowance (HCA) for mothers who stay at home with children that are under age of three. We use regional and over time variation to show that the HCA decreases maternal employment in both the short and long term. The effects are large enough to explain the relatively high short-term child penalty in Finland. HCA negatively affects the early childhood cognitive test results of children, decreases enrollment in high school, and increases youth crimes. We confirm our results by studying a daycare fee reform that had the opposite effects on mothers and children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Hellstrand, Julia, Jessica Nisén & Mikko Myrskylä (2025): Economic uncertainty and men's fertility: analysing the 2010s fertility decline in Finland by field of education and employment characteristics. (MPIDR working paper / Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research 2025-001), Rostock, 38 S. DOI:10.4054/MPIDR-WP-2025-001

Abstract

"In the Nordic countries, the total fertility rate (TFR) fell sharply in the 2010s, and increasing disparities in childbearing outcomes across different levels and fields of education have been documented in previous research. However, the role of economic uncertainty in shaping these fertility trends is not well understood. This study examines the male fertility decline in Finland during the 2010s, focusing on how fertility levels and trends vary by field of education and the economic uncertainty associated with these fields. Using full population register data, the analysis explores total fertility rates (TFR) and the expected shares of men having a first birth (TFRp1) across 122 detailed education groups. We find that fertility declines were stronger in fields with initially lower fertility levels, such as ICT, arts, and humanities, and weaker in fields like health, teaching, and agriculture. Weighted linear regression was used to analyse the association between characteristics reflecting uncertainty and the fertility decline. Fields with higher unemployment, lower income, and lower occupational match saw sharper fertility declines. Additionally, as unemployment decreased and income grew during the 2010s, fertility declines were less pronounced in fields that experienced stronger improvements in these areas. The predictive power of the uncertainty variables increased in the 2010s. The uncertainty model accounted for approximately half of the TFR decline and two-thirds of the TFRp1 decline across different fields. The study highlights the growing disparities in fertility patterns by educational field, underlining the increasing importance of economic security in shaping men's fertility. Keywords: men's fertility, Finland, unemployment, income, occupational match, occupation specificity" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Jalovaara, Marika, Leen Rahnu & Anneli Miettinen (2025): Employment status and entry into parenthood: Weaker labor market status an unlikely driver of cohort fertility decline in a Nordic welfare state. In: Acta sociologica, S. 1-18. DOI:10.1177/00016993251403380

Abstract

"Previous studies in the Nordic context have found a positive association between stronger labor market attachment and entry into parenthood (i.e. first birth), with the association being stronger for men than women and influenced by educational attainment and life-course stage. Using total population register data and event history methods, this study asks whether and how the relationship between employment status and entry into parenthood has changed for women and men born in Finland in the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s. We first examine how the employment situations in which women and men make decisions about entering parenthood have changed across cohorts. Our results indicate that episodes of unemployment have not increased across cohorts of women and men who are (still) childless. At the same time, young adults are increasingly combining studies and paid employment. Stable employment promotes entry into parenthood for both men and women, although the association remains stronger for men. Sufficient economic resources to start a family may have become even more important in recent cohorts, as the negative association between longer-term unemployment and transition to parenthood appears to have intensified. We also observe a cohort trend toward delayed or foregone entry into parenthood occurring regardless of labor market status. To conclude, although weak labor market status is associated with lower first-birth rates, it is unlikely to be a major driver of the cohort fertility decline, as we observe no deterioration in young adults’ labor market status and only modest changes in its association with entry into parenthood." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kühn, Mine, Anna Baranowska-Rataj, Liina Junna, Pekka Martikainen & Niina Metsä-Simola (2025): Unemployment among single mothers and adolescent children's mental health. In: Journal of Family Research, Jg. 37, S. 334-354. DOI:10.20377/jfr-1269

Abstract

"Objective: This paper studies the consequences of maternal unemployment in single-mother families on the mental health of adolescent children. Background: The impact of parental unemployment on the health and well-being of children has received increasing attention in recent years, but little is known about these cross-over effects in single-mother households - a particularly vulnerable family setting for maternal unemployment and child health. Method: We use data from a large, register-based panel of Finnish adolescents aged 15-21 years in 1996-2019 (n = 130,520), with repeated measures of prescribed psychotropic medication purchases in six-month periods. Event study difference-in-difference models - adjusting for time-invariant characteristics - are employed to investigate the association between maternal unemployment and adolescents’ psychotropic medication purchases. Results: Maternal unemployment is associated with a small increase in psychotropic medication purchases, especially about two years after the transition to unemployment. While the point estimates are similar for both boys and girls, the estimates for girls remain non-significant. The observed patterns cannot be explained by changes in maternal income after job loss, and non-resident fathers’ income did not clearly mitigate thenegative effects of single mother unemployment on adolescent psychotropic medication purchases. Conclusion: Maternal unemployment in single-mother households is modestly associated with adolescent mental health, highlighting the need for targeted support for this vulnerable group." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lütolf, Meret (2025): The Balancing Act of Working Mothers and Caring Fathers. Impact of Family Policy on Egalitarianism in Families in Western Democracies. Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 220 S. DOI:10.1007/978-3-658-47716-5

Abstract

"This Open-Access-book explores how egalitarian parental leave policies can support a more balanced division of paid work and caregiving. Introducing a novel analysis grid and a unique dataset, Meret Lütolf examines parental leave policies in five countries – United States, Switzerland, Germany, Finland, and Sweden – revealing how fully paid, non-transferable leave can promote gender-neutral caregiving roles. Key findings highlight the connection between longer paternal leave and a more equal distribution of unpaid work, along with fathers’ willingness to reduce paid work hours in favor of caregiving. By combining multiple research methods, the study links policy intentions with real-life outcomes and identifies feasible reforms, including full wage replacement, that can enhance egalitarianism without raising policy costs. Offering valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and advocates, this book demonstrates how parental leave policies can contribute to more equal family dynamics and address broader gender inequalities in society." (Publisher information, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Mogstad, Magne, Kjell G. Salvanes & Gaute Torsvik (2025): Income Equality in The Nordic Countries: Myths, Facts, and Lessons. (BFI Working Papers / University of Chicago, Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics 2025,25), Chicago, 58 S. DOI:10.2139/ssrn.5133608

Abstract

"Policymakers, public commentators, and researchers often cite the Nordic countries as examples of a social and economic model that successfully combines low income inequality with prosperity and growth. This article aims to critically assess this claim by integrating theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence to illustrate how the Nordic model functions and why these countries experience low inequality. Our analysis suggests that income equality in the Nordics is primarily driven by a significant compression of hourly wages, reducing the returns to labor market skills and education. This appears to be achieved through a wage bargaining system characterized by strong coordination both within and across industries. This finding contrasts with other commonly cited explanations for Nordic income equality, such as redistribution through the tax-transfer system, public spending on goods that complement employment, and public policies aimed at equalizing skills and human capital distribution. We consider the potential lessons for other economies that seek to reduce income equality. We conclude by discussing several underexplored or unresolved questions and issues." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Morosow, Kathrin & Marika Jalovaara (2025): Single and partnered mothers’ labor market consequences of long family leave. In: Community, work & family, S. 1-22. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2025.2535739

Abstract

"This study examines the heterogenous labor market effects of family leave policies for single and partnered mothers. Longer family leave has been shown to weaken women’s labor market positions and some studies have found heterogenous effects across population groups. However, whether the effect differs by partnership status remains unexplored. Using Finnish register data from 1989 to 2014 (ca. 2.5 million person-years) and controlling for selection into single motherhood by comparing estimates from OLS and FE models, this study compares single and partnered mothers’ unemployment and earnings consequent to extended family leaves. In line with predictions that single mothers may face greater work-family reconciliation issues or cumulative disadvantage leading to greater labor market penalties, the results showed that longer leave increases the length of unemployment for single mothers more than for partnered ones. This is not solely because of selection into single motherhood. Earnings penalties after family leave (net of employment status) are the same for single and partnered mothers. We conclude that similar long- lengths of family leave are penalized more among single mothers in terms of employment, which increases and reproduces social inequalities. This means that existing inequalities are reinforced by labor market absences supported by leave policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Narazani, Edlira, Ana Agúndez García, Michael Christl & Francesco Figari (2025): Increased childcare to promote mothers’ employment in selected EU countries. In: Journal of Policy Modeling, Jg. 47, H. 3, S. 492-511. DOI:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2024.12.005

Abstract

"This paper provides evidence of the maternal labor supply effects of increased childcare availability in a set of EU Member States based on the behavioural microsimulation model EUROLAB, that uses a labor market equilibrium model to encompass the demand side. Our findings indicate that achieving higher childcare participation rates would result in an overall increase in the labor supply of mothers with children below 3, with variations across countries. Furthermore, the labor demand side moderates slightly the final employment effect, but employment is still expected to rise substantially vis a vis the baseline situation. In countries like Hungary and Poland, where formal childcare and female labor participation are low, the expected impact on employment is likely to be higher. Conversely, in countries like Portugal the changes in employment are more modest. These findings indicate that universal, one-size-fits-all targets may not be efficient in the EU, given significant variations across countries in terms of labor market participation and childcare systems. Thus, tailored childcare policies that account for country-specific contexts within the EU are recommended." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Society for Policy Modeling. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))

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Noa, Israeli, Gelbgiser Dafna & Stier Haya (2025): The gendered division of paid labour among families of children with disabilities: a comparative approach. In: European Societies, S. 1-45. DOI:10.1162/euso.a.83

Abstract

"Having a child with a disability intensifies work-family conflict due to the additional caregiving demands. Prior research suggests that this conflict reinforces more traditional patterns of labour division in families of children with disabilities (FOCD), contributing to a well-documented ‘disability penalty’, where mothers' relative contribution to paid labour is lower in FOCD than in other families. Yet, it remains unclear whether and how the disability penalty is shaped by family and FOCD-specific policies. We shed light on this association by analysing data from the 2021 European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EUSILC) data from four European countries that differ in their family policies frameworks: Finland, the Netherlands, Spain, and Poland. Our findings suggest that the interplay of family policies and prevailing gender norms may shape the extent of the disability penalty, with crossnational variations in the differences between FOCD and non-FOCD in their gendered division of paid labour. A significant disability penalty is observed only in Poland, a country marked by minimal, means-tested support for FOCD alongside expectations of full-time employment for both parents. In contrast, in Finland, Spain, and the Netherlands, the disability penalty is either negligible or statistically non-significant. These results highlight the importance of a comparative perspective in understanding the disability penalty and highlights the role of family policies in shaping labour market outcomes for FOCD. Findings offer valuable insights for policymakers addressing the challenges faced by FOCD across Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Palladino, Marco G., Antoine Bertheau, Alexander Hijzen, Astrid Kunze, César Barreto, Dogan Gülümser, Marta Lachowska, Anne Sophie Lassen, Salvatore Lattanzio, Benjamin Lochner, Stefano Lombardi, Jordy Meekes, Balázs Muraközy & Oskar Nordström Skans (2025): Firms and the Gender Wage Gap: A Comparison of Eleven Countries. (VATT working papers / Valtion Taloudellinen Tutkimuskeskus (Helsinki) 181), Helsinki, 82 S.

Abstract

"We quantify the role of gender-specific firm wage premiums in explaining the private-sector gender gap in hourly wages using a harmonized research design across 11 matched employer-employee datasets of ten European countries and Washington State, USA. These premiums contribute to the gender wage gap through two channels: women's concentration in lower-paying firms (sorting) and women receiving lower premiums than men within the same firm (pay-setting). We find that firm wage premiums account for 10 to 30 percent of the gender wage gap. While both mechanisms matter, sorting is the predominant driver of the firm contribution to the gender wage gap in most countries. We document three patterns that are broadly consistent across countries: (1) women's sorting into lower-paying firms increases with age; (2)women are more concentrated in low-paying firms with a high share of part-time workers; and (3) women receive about 90 percent of the rents that men receive from firm surplus gains." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Pasanen, Tiia-Maria, Satu Helske, Giovanni Amerigo Giuliani, Simon N. Chapman & Jouni Helske (2025): Adaptation to paternal leave policies in Finnish municipalities: changing gender norms and cross-border policy legacies. In: European Societies, S. 1-27. DOI:10.1162/euso.a.43

Abstract

"Countries where public opinion tends to favour gender equality tend to invest in policies supporting the dual-earner family model or the earner–carer family model, while countries where public opinion is more inclined to support conservative gender norms tend to have policies supporting the male breadwinner family model. However, even though gender equality norms may be endorsed by the majority of the population, conservative norms could still be largely supported at the sub-national level, potentially leading to lower responses to policy reforms intending to boost gender-equal practices. This study examines shifting norms in fathers’ parental leave uptake in Finnish municipalities in the 2010s, around a reform that gave fathers an independent right to a 6-week quota of “solo” parental leave. We applied a Bayesian spatio-temporal model on administrative data from Finnish municipalities and approximated local norms based on voting data. We also used the proportion of Swedish-speaking residents as a proxy for cross-border policy influences from the neighbouring country Sweden, where paternal leave-taking has been practiced longer. Local support to de-familialising policies was found to predict higher leavetaking, but only under a less supportive policy configuration. The proportion of Swedish-speaking residents was found to be increasingly important for predicting paternal leave-taking. We interpret this as a sign of cross-border influences from Sweden. Interestingly, uptake increased the fastest in a more conservative region, probably due to its strong linguistic and cultural links to Sweden. Furthermore, we observed spatial dependencies between neighbouring municipalities, which supports our spillover hypothesis; that interactions among families nearby lead them to adopt new practices." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Afonso, António & M. Carmen Blanco-Arana (2024): The Persistence of Gender Pay and Employment Gaps in European Countries. (CESifo working paper 11315), München, 18 S.

Abstract

"The gender pay gap and the gender gap in employment remains persistent in Europe despite the basic assertion of gender equality under EU law. We assess the factors that influence the gender pay gap and gender employment gap across European countries. Therefore, we use an unbalanced panel of 31 European countries over the period 2000-2022, and estimate a system generalized method of moment model (GMM). The main conclusions confirm that tertiary education significantly reduces gender pay gap and part-time and temporary contracts significantly increase this gap. Moreover, part-time reduces significantly gender employment gap. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita does not affect these gaps and the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) saw a narrowing of the gender pay and employment gaps in European countries. The results are robust when using a fixed effects (FE) model." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Elass, Kenza (2024): Male and female selection effects on gender wage gaps in three countries. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 87. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2024.102506

Abstract

"A vast literature on gender wage gaps has examined the importance of selection into employment. However, most analyses have focused only on female labor force participation and gaps at the median. The Great Recession questions this approach because of the major shift in male employment that it implied. This paper uses the methodology proposed by Arellano and Bonhomme (2017) to estimate a quantile selection model over the period 2007–2018. Using a tax and benefit microsimulation model, I compute an instrument capturing both male and female decisions to participate in the labor market: the potential out-of-work income. Since my instrument is crucially determined by the welfare state, I consider three countries with notably different benefit systems – the UK, France and Finland. My results imply different selection patterns across countries and a sizeable male selection in France and the UK. Correction for selection bias lowers the gender wage gap and reveals a substantial glass ceiling with different magnitudes. Findings suggest that disparities between these countries are driven by occupational segregation and public spending on families." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))

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Hägglund, Anna Erika (2024): Same degrees, different outcomes? Fields of study choices and gender wage inequality in Finland and Germany. In: Social science research, Jg. 122. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103029

Abstract

"Men and women's diverging fields of study choices contribute to the gender wage gap among highly educated workers in several countries, yet systematic cross-national comparisons are rare. Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study, the German Microcensus, and Statistics Finland this study explores whether fields of study shape the gender wage gap differently in Germany than in Finland; two countries that display strong linkages between education and employment, but differ in the generosity of family policies. The results show that fields of study are an important source of gender wage disparities in both countries. In Germany, associations between characteristics of fields and wages do not seem to differ between the genders. In Finland, the findings suggest that women profit more than men from fields with strong linkages to occupations. Our findings highlight that research analyzing the association between fields of study and gender inequality needs to consider institutional features and gender-specific patterns." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier) ((en))

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Kritikos, Alexander S., Mika Maliranta, Veera Nippala & Satu Nurmi (2024): Does gender of firm ownership matter? Female entrepreneurs and the gender pay gap. In: Journal of Population Economics, Jg. 37. DOI:10.1007/s00148-024-01030-x

Abstract

"We examine how the gender of business owners is related to the wages paid to female relative to male employees working in their firms. Using Finnish register data and employing firm fixed effects, we find that the gender pay gap is - starting froma gender pay gap of 11 to 12% - two to three percentage points lower for hourly wages in female-owned firms than in male-owned firms. Results are robust to how the wage is measured, as well as to various further robustness checks. More importantly, we find substantial differences between industries. While, for instance, in the manufacturing sector, the gender of the owner plays no role in the gender pay gap, in several service sector industries, like ICT or business services, no or a negligible gender pay gap can be found, but only when firms are led by female business owners. Businesses with male ownership maintain a gender pay gap of around 10% also in the latter industries. With increasing firm size, the influence of the gender of the owner, however, fades. In large firms, it seems that others - firm Managers - determine wages and no differences in the pay gap are observed between male- and female-owned firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Lorenti, Angelo, Jessica Nisén, Letizia Mencarini & Mikko Myrskylä (2024): Gendered Parenthood-Employment Gaps from Midlife: A Demographic Perspective Across Three Different Welfare Systems. In: European Journal of Population, Jg. 40. DOI:10.1007/s10680-024-09699-2

Abstract

"Women’s labor force participation has increased in Western countries, but gender gaps remain, especially among parents. Using a novel comparative perspective, we assess women’s and men’s employment trajectories from midlife onward by parity and education. We provide insights into the gendered parenthood-employment gaps examining the long-term implications of parenthood beyond the core childbearing ages by decomposing years lived between ages 40–74, in years of employment, joblessness, and retirement. Using multistate incidence-based life tables, we compare different cultural and institutional contexts: Finland, Italy, and the USA. Our results document large cross-national variation, with education playing a key role. In Finland, the number of years of employment increases with parity for women and men, and the gender gap is small; in the USA, the relationship between parity and years of employment is relatively flat, although a gender gap emerges among those with two or more children; in Italy, the number of years of employment decreases sharply for women as parity increases, while it increases for men. Notably, education has a similar positive impact on years of employment across all groups in Finland. In contrast, in the USA and Italy, the gender gap is only half as large among highly educated mothers as it is among low educated mothers. The employment trajectories of childless women and men differ greatly across countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Wide, Elisabeth (2024): The Legal Formation of Class in Migrant Care and Domestic Work. In: Sociology, Jg. 58, H. 4, S. 911-928. DOI:10.1177/00380385231217584

Abstract

"This article analyzes the relationship between law and class formation through the case of migrant care and domestic work, and puts sociological class theory into conversation with critical migration research. It contributes to class theory by analyzing how law helps produce class relations in the Finnish context. The Finnish state channels migrants into cleaning and domestic work through policy measures, and migration law ties them to the reproductive sector, making law a central social relation that defines migrants’ relation to production. The analysis draws on interviews with migrant care and domestic workers (N = 30) holding temporary work permits and examines their structural and affective descriptions of a position restricted by law. The article argues that the way migrant domestic work is formalized in the legislation produces a class relation for migrants, in which they lack full ownership over their labor power. The findings demonstrate how migrant domestic workers express gratitude for their employment despite experiencing it as devalued, indicating labor as repayment of the ‘gift’ of the residence permit." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Alakärppä, Outi, Eija Sevón, Helen Norman & Anna Rönkä (2023): Young women's contradictory expectations and their perceived capabilities for future work-family reconciliation in Finland. In: Journal of Youth Studies, Jg. 26, H. 10, S. 1312-1327. DOI:10.1080/13676261.2022.2098703

Abstract

"This paper explores young women's expectations on future work-family reconciliation in Finland, a Nordic country well-known for the promotion of gender equality. Utilizing Sen's capabilities approach, we content-analyzed thirty individual interviews to identify differences in women's expectations and their perceived capabilities in future work and care. The results showed that irrespective of their labor market status and educational attainment, the women's expectations were contradictory, reflecting a current Finnish gender culture that embraces both the ideal of shared parenthood and the primacy of maternal care. Between-group differences were also found. The employed women perceived themselves as having the capability to balance work, family and, personal time in the future. The women who were studying and had higher education- and career-related expectations perceived themselves as capable of combating gender inequality in their future working lives. In contrast, the unemployed women perceived their capabilities in both their future work and care as limited, thereby constraining their agency to realize their choices in work-family reconciliation and family decision-making. These findings indicate that Finnish women's expectations on future work-family reconciliation are shaped by institutional, societal and individual socioeconomic factors." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bar-Haim, Eyal, Louis Chauvel, Janet Gornick & Anne Hartung (2023): The Persistence of the Gender Earnings Gap: Cohort Trends and the Role of Education in Twelve Countries. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 165, H. 3, S. 821-841. DOI:10.1007/s11205-022-03029-x

Abstract

"Studying twelve countries over 30 years, we examine whether women's educational expansion has translated into a narrowing of the gender gap in earnings when including persons with zero earnings. As educational attainment is cohort-dependent, an Age-Period-Cohort analysis is most appropriate in our view. Using the micro data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database, we show that while, in terms of attainment of tertiary education, women have caught up and often even outperform men, substantial gender differences in our earnings measure persist in all countries. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method in an innovative age-period-cohort approach, we demonstrate that the role of education in explaining gender earnings differences has been limited and even decreased over cohorts. We also conclude that, when including persons not receiving earnings, earnings differences at levels far from gender equality will likely persist in the future, even if the “rise of women” in terms of education continues—as the share of women in higher education increases and the returns to education in particular for women declines." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Campaña, Juan Carlos, José Ignacio Giménez-Nadal & Jorge Velilla (2023): Measuring Gender Gaps in Time Allocation in Europe. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 165, H. 2, S. 519-553. DOI:10.1007/s11205-022-03026-0

Abstract

"This paper explores the gender gap in time allocation in European countries, offering a comparison of the 2000s and the 2010s, along with an explanation of the documented gender gaps, based on social norms and institutional factors. The results show that the gender gap in both paid and unpaid work has decreased in most countries, but with a significant level of cross-country heterogeneity in the size of the gender gaps. More traditional social norms are related to greater gender inequalities in paid and unpaid work, while countries with better family-friendly policies and a greater representation of women in politics and in the labour market exhibit smaller gender inequalities. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of gender gaps in Europe, and attempts to monitor the progress towards the elimination of gender inequalities. Despite that some degree of gender convergence in paid and unpaid work has taken place, there remain inequalities in the distribution of labour in European countries, and possible solutions may be related to social norms and family-friendly policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Haapanen, Mika, Jaakko Pehkonen & Ville Seppälä (2023): Couples' joint retirement by household type: Evidence from Finland. In: Labour, Jg. 37, H. 3, S. 409-436. DOI:10.1111/labr.12253

Abstract

"This study examines joint retirement in Finland. Employing a regression discontinuity design, the study leverages the exogenous variation provided by the eligibility age for earnings-related pensions. The analysis yields three key findings. First, reaching the eligibility age has a significant effect on an individual's retirement. Second, male spouses' retirement at the age of 63 has a spillover effect on their female spouses. Third, disaggregated analyses show that older spouses in low-income households delay their retirement, older male (female) spouses with female (male) primary earners postpone their retirement, and younger female spouses with male primary earners expedite their retirement." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Karjalainen, Mira (2023): Gender and the blurring boundaries of work in the era of telework—A longitudinal study. In: Sociology Compass, Jg. 17, H. 1, S. e13029. DOI:10.1111/soc4.13029

Abstract

"This longitudinal study analyses gender and the blurring boundaries of work during prolonged telework, utilising data gathered during the different phases of the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic caused a major change in the knowledge work sector, which has characteristically been more prone to work leaking into other parts of life. The study examines the blurring boundaries of telework: between time and place, care and housework, and emotional, social, spiritual and aesthetic labour. The experiences of different genders regarding the blurring boundaries of work during long-term telework are scrutinised using a mixed methods approach, analysing two surveys (Autumn 2020: N = 87, and Autumn 2021: N = 94) conducted longitudinally in a consulting company operating in Finland. There were several gendered differences in the reported forms of labour, which contribute to the blurring boundaries of work. Some boundary blurring remained the same during the study, while some fluctuated. The study also showed how the gendered practices around the blurring boundaries of work transformed during prolonged telework. Blurring boundaries of work and attempts to establish boundaries became partially gendered, as gender and life situation were reflected in knowledge workers' experiences of teleworking." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Kowalewska, Helen (2023): Gendered employment patterns: Women's labour market outcomes across 24 countries. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 33, H. 2, S. 151-168. DOI:10.1177/09589287221148336

Abstract

"An accepted framework for ‘gendering’ the analysis of welfare regimes compares countries by degrees of ‘defamilialization’ or how far their family policies support or undermine women’s employment participation. This article develops an alternative framework that explicitly spotlights women’s labour market outcomes rather than policies. Using hierarchical clustering on principal components, it groups 24 industrialized countries by their simultaneous performance across multiple gendered employment outcomes spanning segregation and inequalities in employment participation, intensity, and pay, with further differences by class. The three core ‘worlds’ of welfare (social-democratic, corporatist, liberal) each displays a distinctive pattern of gendered employment outcomes. Only France diverges from expectations, as large gender pay gaps across the educational divide – likely due to fragmented wage-bargaining – place it with Anglophone countries. Nevertheless, the outcome-based clustering fails to support the idea of a homogeneous Mediterranean grouping or a singular Eastern European cluster. Furthermore, results underscore the complexity and idiosyncrasy of gender inequality: while certain groups of countries are ‘better’ overall performers, all have their flaws. Even the Nordics fall behind on some measures of segregation, despite narrow participatory and pay gaps for lower- and high-skilled groups. Accordingly, separately monitoring multiple measures of gender inequality, rather than relying on ‘headline’ indicators or gender equality indices, matters." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Moilanen, Sanna, Eija Räikkönen & Maarit Alasuutari (2023): Mothers' return-to-work reasons and work–family conflict: does a partner involved in childcare make a difference? In: Community, work & family, Jg. 26, H. 4, S. 444-465. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2021.2009441

Abstract

"Facilitating mothers’ work–family reconciliation upon their return to work can be considered a viable means of enhancing women’s overall employment participation. This study examined return-to-work reasons among mothers with a one-year-old child, how these reasons are related to mothers’ background characteristics, work-to-family conflict (WFC) and family-to-work conflict (FWC) and whether having a partner home caring for the child protects against such conflicts. Results based on survey data collected from Finnish working mothers (N=573) in 2016 showed four dimensions of return-to-work reasons: personal importance of work, work- and career-related worries, dissatisfaction with stay-at-home mothering and convenient work/childcare conditions. Higher personal importance of work was associated with lower levels of WFC and FWC, whereas higher work- and career-related worries were related to higher WFC and FWC. Higher dissatisfaction with stay-at-home mothering was associated with higher WFC and higher convenient work/childcare conditions with lower WFC. Having a partner on care-related leave did not protect against the conflict." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Nisén, Jessica, Anni Erlandsson & Marika Jalovaara (2023): Gendered Relationship of Childbearing with Earnings Accumulated by Midlife in Two Nordic Countries. (INVEST working papers 2023,75), Helsinki, 27 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/mr4yg

Abstract

"Nordic countries are considered advanced in gender equality, but also in these countries women still take longer family leaves and have lower earnings than men. This study providesnovel insight by assessing the differences in accumulated earnings by midlife associated with childbearing among women and men in Finland and Sweden. We place particular attention to the magnitude of gender gaps in accumulated earnings across groups. We hypothesize larger gender gaps among those with a larger number of children, among those with a lower level of education, and overall, in Finland. The study is based on full-population register data, with highly accurate measures of earnings across decades. Our results indicate that women born in 1974–1975 accumulatedon average 32% and 29% less labor earnings than men by age 44 in Finland and Sweden, respectively. Childbearing strongly modifies the gender gap especially in Finland, and the highly educated have moderately smaller gaps in both countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Salin, Milla, Mia Hakovirta, Anniina Kaittila & Johanna Raivio (2023): Single earners and carers during lockdown: everyday challenges faced by Finnish single mothers during the COVID-19 pandemic. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 43, H. 13/14, S. 146-160. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-03-2023-0051

Abstract

"Purpose: This article analyzes the challenges Finnish single mothers experienced in their everyday lives during the COVID-19 pandemic. In studies on challenges to family life during COVID-19 lockdowns, single-parent families remain a largely understudied group. Design/methodology/approach The authors apply triple bind theory and ask how did Finnish single mothers manage the interplay between inadequate resources, inadequate employment, and inadequate policies during lockdown in spring 2020? These data come from an online survey including both qualitative and quantitative questions which was conducted between April and May 2020 to gather Finnish families' experiences during lockdown. This analysis is based on the qualitative part of the survey. Findings This study's results show that lockdown created new inadequacies while also enhancing some old inadequacies in the lives of Finnish single mothers. During lockdown, single mothers faced policy- and resource-disappearances; accordingly, they lost their ability to do paid work normally. Furthermore, these disappearances endangered the well-being of some single mothers and their families. Originality/value This article contributes to the wider understanding of everyday lives of single mothers and the challenges COVID-19 pandemic created. Moreover, this study provides knowledge on the applicability of the triple bind theory when studying the everyday lives of single mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Avram, Silvia & Daria Popova (2022): Do taxes and transfers reduce gender income inequality? Evidence from eight European welfare states. In: Social science research, Jg. 102. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102644

Abstract

"We examine how taxes and transfers affect the incomes of men and women. Using microsimulation and intra-household income splitting rules, we measure the differences in the level and composition of individual disposable income by gender in eight European countries covering various welfare regime types. We quantify the extent to which taxes and transfers can counterbalance the gender gap in earnings, as well as which policy instruments contribute most to reducing the gender income gap. We find that with the exception of old-age public pensions, all taxes and transfers significantly reduce gender income inequality but cannot compensate for high gender earnings gaps. Our findings suggest that gender income equality is more likely to be achieved by promoting the universal/dual breadwinner model, whereby women's labour force participation and wages are on a par with men. To achieve this, men will likely need to work less and care more." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2022 Elsevier) ((en))

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Bar-Haim, Eyal, Louis Chauvel, Janet Gornick & Anne Hartung (2022): The Persistence of the Gender Earnings Gap: Cohort Trends and the Role of Education in Twelve Countries. (SocArXiv papers), [Charlottesville, VA], 36 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/dkc76

Abstract

"Studying twelve countries over 30 years, we examine whether women’s educational expansion has translated into a narrowing of the gender gap in earnings when including persons with zero earnings. As educational attainment is cohort-dependent, an Age-Period-Cohort analysis is most appropriate in our view. Using the micro data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database, we show that while, in terms of attainment of tertiary education, women have caught up and often even outperform men, substantial gender differences in our earnings measure persist in all countries. Using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method in an innovative age-period-cohort approach, we demonstrate that the role of education in explaining gender earnings differences has been limited and even decreased over cohorts. We also conclude that, when including persons not receiving earnings, earnings differences at levels far from gender equality will likely persist in the future, even if the “rise of women” in terms of education continues – as the share of women in higher education increases and the returns to education in particular for women declines." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cooke, Lynn Prince, Anna Erika Hägglund & Rossella Icardi (2022): Paradox or Mitigation? Childless and Parent Gender Gaps across British, Finnish, and German Wage Distributions. In: Social Politics, Jg. 29, H. 3, S. 955-979. DOI:10.1093/sp/jxac016

Abstract

"Part of the welfare paradox is that generous family policies increase private sector employer discrimination particularly against higher-wage women. We argue instead that bundles of generous policies mitigate gender productivity differences among parents, and in turn the discrimination also affecting childless women. We test these assertions by estimating the two gaps across the British, Finnish, and German private sector wage distributions using 2000–2018 panel data and unconditional quantile regression. Because of smaller motherhood penalties below the median, parenthood gaps are smallest in Finland and Germany. In contrast, fatherhood premiums constitute most of the parenthood gap for high-wage German and British women, whereas high-wage British women are disadvantaged by motherhood penalties and fatherhood premiums. The childless gap is also smaller across the bottom of the Finnish and German wage distributions. Overall, our advanced modeling strategy finds strong support for the mitigating effects of generous family policies on gender wage gaps." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Eerola, Petteri, Johanna Närvi & Johanna Lammi-Taskula (2022): Can fathers' leave take-up dismantle gendered parental responsibilities? Evidence from Finland. In: Journal of Family Research, Jg. 34, H. 3, S. 958-982. DOI:10.20377/jfr-723

Abstract

"Objective: This article reports on the associations of fathers' leave take-up with parents' care responsibilities when their child is around four years old. Background: In families with small children women continue to do more parental care work than men. Several studies, however, have suggested that fathers who take up parental leave also take more responsibility for childcare. Method: We applied logistic regression analysis to Finnish survey data collected in 2019 from the mothers and fathers of four-year-old children to find out whether father’s take-up and length of leave is related to fathers taking equal or more responsibility for different dimensions of parental responsibilities, including hands-on care, interacting with the child, community responsibility and mental labour. Results: Our descriptive analysis showed that in families with two working parents, parents shared some hands-on care tasks more equally if the father had taken more than three weeks of leave. When only the father was in paid employment, his take-up of leave was associated with taking the child to or from daycare. Conclusion: We conclude that while father's individual leave has unfulfilled potential in dismantling gendered parental care responsibilities, its effects might differ across different dimensions of parental responsibilities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Elass, Kenza (2022): The multiple dimensions of selection into employment. (French Stata Users' Group Meetings 2022 06), Marseille, 49 S.

Abstract

"A vast literature on gender wage gaps has examined the importance of selection into employment. However, most analyses have focused only on female labour force participation and gaps at the median. The Great Recession questions this approach both because of the major shift in male employment that it implied but also because women’s decision to participate seems to have been different along the distribution, particularly due to an “added worker effect”. This paper uses the methodology proposed by Arellano and Bonhomme (2017) to estimate a quantile selection model over the period 2007-2018. Using a tax and benefit microsimulation model, I compute an instrument capturing the male selection induced by the crisis as well as female decisions: the potential out-of-work income. Since my instrument is crucially determined by the welfare state, I consider three countries with notably different benefit systems – the UK, France and Finland. My results imply different selection patterns across countries and a sizeable male selection in France and the UK. Correction for selection bias lower the gender wage gap and, in most recent years, reveals an increasing shape of the gender gap distribution with a substantial glass ceiling for the three countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gruber, Jonathan, Kristiina Huttunen & Tuomas Kosonen (2022): Paying Moms to Stay Home: Short and Long Run Effects on Parents and Children. (VATT working papers / Valtion Taloudellinen Tutkimuskeskus (Helsinki) 151), Helsinki, 86 S.

Abstract

"We study the impacts of a policy designed to reward mothers who stay at home rather than join the labor force when their children are under age three. We use regional and over time variation in child home care allowance to show that home care allowance decreases maternal employment in both the short and long term, with almost three-quarters of the supplement amount offset by lost labor income. The effects are large enough for the existence of home care benefit system to explain the higher child penalty in Finland than comparable nations. Home care benefits also negatively affect the early childhood cognitive test results of children at the age of five, increase the likelihood of choosing vocational rather than academic secondary education track, and increase youth crimes. We confirm that the mechanism of action is changing work/home care arrangements by studying a day care fee (DCF) reform had the opposite effect of raising incentives to work. We find that this policy increased the labor force participation of mothers and participation of children to day care, and improved child early test and schooling outcomes. This parallel set of findings suggests that on average in Finland, shifting child care from the home to the market increases labor force participation and improves child outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kan, Man-Yee, Muzhi Zhou, Kamila Kolpashnikova, Ekaterina Hertog, Shohei Yoda & Jiweon Jun (2022): Revisiting the Gender Revolution: Time on Paid Work, Domestic Work, and Total Work in East Asian and Western Societies 1985–2016. In: Gender & Society, Jg. 36, H. 3, S. 368-396. DOI:10.1177/08912432221079664

Abstract

"We analyze time use data of four East Asian societies and 12 Western countries between 1985 and 2016 to investigate the gender revolution in paid work, domestic work, and total work. The closing of gender gaps in paid work, domestic work, and total work time has stalled in the most recent decade in several countries. The magnitude of the gender gaps, cultural contexts, and welfare policies plays a key role in determining whether the gender revolution in the division of labor will stall or continue. Women undertake more total work than men across all societies: The gender gap ranges from 30 minutes to 2 hours a day. Our findings suggest that cultural norms interact with institutional contexts to affect the patterns of gender convergence in time use, and gender equality might settle at differing levels of egalitarianism across countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Morosow, Kathrin & Lynn Prince Cooke (2022): The Impact of Taking Family Leaves Across Finnish Fathers' Wage Distribution. In: Social forces, Jg. 101, H. 1, S. 202-226. DOI:10.1093/sf/soab106

Abstract

"Evidence is mixed as to whether less- or more-advantaged fathers suffer penalties for taking paid family leave and the reasons for this. Perhaps selection into taking leave differs among fathers, or taking leave increases some fathers’ commitment to family over paid work, or taking it sends a negative signal to employers about future work-family priorities. We contribute to the literature by distinguishing between the initial paternity leave taken by the majority of fathers, and subsequent solo paternal leave taken by fewer fathers that indicates and signals greater family commitment. We also develop competing hypotheses about why low- or high-wage fathers may be penalized more for taking family leave. These are tested analyzing 2001 to 2014 waves of Finnish administrative panel data using unconditional quantile regression with various fixed-effects models. Net of selection, no fathers incur a sustained wage penalty for taking paternity leave, although distributed fixed-effects models reveal the highest-wage fathers receive a temporary penalty that we attribute to signaling. All fathers who also take solo paternal leave have decreasing post-leave wage trajectories. Only lower-wage fathers accrue significant penalties, however, suggesting that taking the leave shifts their priorities more toward family. We conclude the repercussions of taking shorter or longer family leaves and their sources differ across fathers’ wage distribution." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Vaalavuo, Maria, Henri Salokangas & Ossi Tahvonen (2022): Gender inequality reinforced. The impact of a child's health shock on parents' labor market trajectories. (INVEST working papers 2022,51), Helsinki, 46 S. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/wx83z

Abstract

"This article employs a couple-level framework to examine how a child’s severe illness affects within-family gender inequality in a Northern European context. We study the parental labor market responses to a child’s cancer diagnosis by exploiting an event study methodology and individual-level administrative data on hospitalizations and labor market variables for the total population in Finland. We focus on the differences in the effects by gender, breadwinner status, cancer severity and age of children. We find that child cancer has a negative impact on the labor income of both the mother and the father. This effect is considerably larger for women, and therefore leads to an increase in gender inequality on top of the well-documented motherhood penalty related to childbirth. However, mothers who are the main breadwinners in the family experience a smaller reduction in their contribution to household income. Additionally, older age of the child at cancer diagnosis and less severe cancer type potentially protect against gendered responses. These new insights provide evidence on gender roles when a child falls ill and show how child health affects gender inequality in two-parent households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Wuestenenk, Nick & Katia Begall (2022): The motherhood wage gap and trade-offs between family and work: A test of compensating wage differentials. In: Social science research, Jg. 106. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2022.102726

Abstract

"The theory of compensating wage differentials may explain part of the motherhood wage gap if mothers are more likely than childless women and men to make a trade-off between monetary and non-monetary rewards when looking for a job. Whereas previous studies focus primarily on jobs that employees currently hold, we present a more accurate test of this theory by studying the extent to which childless (wo)men, fathers and mothers trade off wages and family-friendly working conditions (flexibility, no overtime) in looking for a new job. Using a unique vignette experiment in four European countries (N = 7040), we find that the theory of compensating wage differentials is not supported. When presented with fictional job-openings that vary randomly on family-friendly working conditions and wages, mothers are not more likely than fathers or childless men and women to choose jobs with more family-friendly working conditions and lower pay. Instead, we find that mothers are more likely to apply for jobs with lower wages regardless of other job characteristics. These results suggest that the motherhood wage gap may not be explained by compensating wage differentials, but by mothers' higher likelihood of applying for jobs with lower wages." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2022 Elsevier) ((en))

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Aarntzen, Lianne, Tanja van der Lippe, Elianne van Steenbergen & Belle Derks (2021): How individual gender role beliefs, organizational gender norms, and national gender norms predict parents' work-Family guilt in Europe. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 24, H. 2, S. 120-142. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2020.1816901

Abstract

"The guilt that mothers feel about the time and energy that they invest in work instead of their family is often proposed to be an important reason for why mothers ‘opt-out’ the career track. We sought to understand if mothers indeed experience more work-family guilt than fathers and how this relates to both their own gender role beliefs and organizational gender norms across nine European countries. Analyses draw on the European Social Workforce Survey, with data from 2619 working parents nested in 110 organizations in 9 European countries. Results showed that when fathers and mothers work more than a full-time week (a) fathers with traditional gender role beliefs felt less guilty, and (b) especially mothers working in an organization with low support for the parent role of working fathers felt guilty. Explorative analyses showed no effect of national gender norms on gender differences in guilt. Our results are beneficial for organizations and policy makers by showing that guilt in working mothers can be reduced by developing egalitarian organizational norms, in which there is support for the parent role of mothers and fathers, potentially helping mothers to focus on their careers alongside their families." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Aksoy, Cevat Giray, Berkay Özcan & Julia Philipp (2021): Robots and the Gender Pay Gap in Europe. In: European Economic Review, Jg. 134. DOI:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103693

Abstract

"Could robotization make the gender pay gap worse? We provide the first large-scale evidence on the impact of industrial robots on the gender pay gap using data from 20 European countries. We show that robot adoption increases both male and female earnings but also increases the gender pay gap. Using an instrumental variable strategy, we find that a ten percent increase in robotization leads to a 1.8 percent increase in the gender pay gap. These results are driven by countries with high initial levels of gender inequality and can be explained by the fact that men at medium- and high-skill occupations disproportionately benefit from robotization, through a productivity effect. We rule out the possibility that our results are driven by mechanical changes in the gender composition of the workforce." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2021 Elsevier) ((en))

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Hedel, Karen van, Heta Moustgaard, Mikko Myrskylä & Pekka Martikainen (2021): Work-family typologies and mental health among women in early working ages. (MPIDR working paper / Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research 2021-015), Rostock, 38 S. DOI:10.4054/MPIDR-WP-2021-015

Abstract

"Better mental health is observed among women with a partner, children, or employment as compared with women without a partner, children, or employment, respectively. Moreover, women who fulfill all three roles are generally healthier than those with fewer roles. Because of significant changes in work-family life constellations over age, understanding these health differentials requires a life course approach. We linked work-family trajectories to mental health in mid-life for Finnish women using longitudinal registry data. Panel data from an 11% random sample of the population residing in Finland in any year between 1987 and 2007 and followed up until 2013 were used. Work-family combinations were based on partnership status, motherhood status, and employment status. Purchases of prescribed psychotropic medication were used as a measure of mental health. We used sequence analysis to identify 7 distinct groups of women based on their work-family trajectories between ages 20 to 42 years. The associations of typologies of trajectories with mental health at age 43 years were estimated with logistic regression models. Compared to employed mothers with a partner, all other women were more likely to have purchased any psychotropic medication at age 43; especially women without a partner, children or employment and lone mothers had worse mental health. These disadvantages remained after controlling for psychotropic medication purchases earlier in life (to account for potential health selection). Adjusting for age at motherhood did not contribute to the better mental health of employed mothers with a partner. Women combining partnership, motherhood, and employment during early working ages had better mental health later in life than women with other work-family trajectories even after adjusting for mental health earlier in life. Interventions to improve the mental health of women living alone in mid-life, including lone mothers, and individuals without employment, may be need" (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ledic, Marko & Ivica Rubil (2021): Beyond Wage Gap, Towards Job Quality Gap: The Role of Inter-Group Differences in Wages, Non-Wage Job Dimensions, and Preferences. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 155, H. 2, S. 523-561. DOI:10.1007/s11205-021-02612-y

Abstract

"Wage is not the only thing people care about when assessing the quality of their jobs. Non-wage job dimensions, such as autonomy at work and work-life balance, are important as well. Nevertheless, there is vast literature comparing groups of employed people that focuses on the inter-group wage gaps only. We go beyond the wage gap by proposing a framework for analysing inter-group gaps in multidimensional job quality. Job quality is measured by the so-called equivalent wage, a measure combining wage and multiple non-wage job dimensions in accordance with preferences over jobs as combinations of job dimensions. We derive a decomposition of the inter-group equivalent wage gap into three components: (1) the standard wage gap, (2) the gap in non-wage dimensions, and (3) inter-group preference heterogeneity. In an illustrative empirical application, we focus on the gender gap for recent university graduates using survey data from 19 countries. Men's equivalent wages are substantially higher than women's, and the equivalent wage gaps are significantly larger than the wage gaps. This is because the non-wage job dimensions are on average to men's advantage, and the preference heterogeneity is such that men care about the non-wage dimensions less than women do, and thus suffer less from having the non-wage dimensions at levels below the perfect level. This type of decompositions broadens information about labour market inequalities available to policy makers, but it is up to them to decide which of the three components of the equivalent wage gap are normatively relevant for them and whether they should aim to eliminate them." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Niemistö, Charlotta, Jeff Hearn, Carolyn Kehn & Annamari Tuori (2021): Motherhood 2.0: Slow Progress for Career Women and Motherhood within the 'Finnish Dream'. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 35, H. 4, S. 696-715. DOI:10.1177/0950017020987392

Abstract

"This article investigates the gendered dynamics of motherhood and careers, as voiced by professionals in the knowledge-intensive business sector in Finland. It is informed by the CIAR method through 81 iterative, in-depth interviews with 23 women and 19 men. Among the women respondents with no children, one child, or two children, three dominant forms of discursive talk emerge: ‘It takes two to tango’, ‘It’s all about time management’ and ‘Good motherhood 2.0’. Though Finland provides a seemingly egalitarian Nordic welfare state context, with the ‘Finnish Dream’, women face contradictions between expectations of women as full-time ideal workers pursuing masculinist careers and continuing responsibilities at home, performing ‘good motherhood’. The women’s double strivings meet the double constraining demands of these ideals. The gendered pressures are imposed on the women by themselves, male colleagues, the organisation more broadly and society, leading the women to enact a form of ‘bounded individualism’." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Saarikallio-Torp, Miia & Anneli Miettinen (2021): Family leaves for fathers: Non-users as a test for parental leave reforms. In: Journal of European Social Policy, Jg. 31, H. 2, S. 161-174. DOI:10.1177/0958928721996650

Abstract

"The proportion of total parental leave days taken by fathers has increased in all Nordic countries almost hand in hand with parental leave reforms. However, the average pattern of fathers’ parental leave uptake hides the fact that a considerable proportion of fathers use no parental leave, even when they are earmarked for the father. In this study, we focus on the proportion and characteristics of non-users, that is, fathers who do not use parental leave. We distinguish two non-user groups: fathers who use no parental leave, not even birth-related leave and fathers who do not use the father’s quota. This distinction is relevant because it reflects the design and institutional status of fathers’ parental leave. Further, factors related to using no parental leave are likely to be somewhat different to those related to not using the father’s quota. In Finland, the father’s quota was introduced in 2003, but it became fully independent leave for the father only in 2013. We also investigate if the 2013 reform was followed by any changes in fathers’ parental leave use and in the profiles of non-users. We use a unique longitudinal register data that covers practically (fathers to) all children born in 2010–2015 and follow parental leave use until 2018. We find that the 2013 reform was followed by a considerable increase in the uptake of the father’s quota. The proportion of fathers who used no parental leave remained stable, but the reform encouraged some fathers to take longer, independent leave in addition to the birth-related leave. Overall, less educated and low-income fathers were less likely to use any parental leave, and if they took leave, they were more likely to use only the birth-related leave. However, the 2013 reform slightly diminished socioeconomic disparities in the use of the father’s quota." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Vaahtoniemi, Saara (2021): The finance wage premium: Finnish evidence from a gender perspective. In: Labour, Jg. 35, H. 3, S. 412-431. DOI:10.1111/labr.12203

Abstract

"The growth in finance wages has contributed to the increase in top incomes over the last decades. The finance wage premium has been studied from various viewpoints in recent years, however, not from the gender perspective. Studies have shown that the gender wage gap tends to increase at top incomes. As finance wages are increasing and if the benefits of working in finance are mostly claimed by men, the overall gender wage gap will persist. Using Finnish registry data from 1990 to 2014, this paper shows that the finance wage premium differs considerably between men and women. Overall, the finance premium has increased over time. The premium of men is larger than that of women at all hierarchy levels. Women at manager and expert positions in finance get a premium, but not at clerical level. Men on the other hand receive a premium at all hierarchy levels. The negative female effect is larger at higher points of the wage distribution, indicative of a glass ceiling effect. For men, the premium has increased especially at the top of the wage distribution." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Xiao, Pengpeng (2021): Wage and Employment Discrimination by Gender in Labor Market Equilibrium. (VATT working papers / Valtion Taloudellinen Tutkimuskeskus (Helsinki) 144), Helsinki, 60 S.

Abstract

"This paper develops an equilibrium search model to study the mechanisms underlying the lifecycle gender wage gap: human capital accumulation, preference for job amenities, and employers’ statistical discrimination in wage offers and hiring. In the model, men and women differ in turnover behaviors, parental leave lengths, and preference for amenities before and after having children. Capacity-constrained firms anticipate these gender differences when setting wages and making match decisions. Estimating the model on administrative employer-employee data combined with occupational level survey data on amenities from Finland, I find that a large proportion (44%) of the gender wage gap in early career is attributed to employers’ statistical discrimination based on fertility concerns, whereas gender differences in labor force attachment explain the majority of the gap (70%) in late career. Both hiring discrimination and preference for amenities draw women to low-productivity jobs in early career, and slow down their career progression in the long run. Counterfactual simulations show that shifting two parental leave months from women to men shrinks the wage gap by 13%. A gender quota at top jobs improves women’s representation in high productivity positions, but firms undo this policy by exerting more wage discrimination. An equal pay policy counterfactual shows that requiring firms to pay men and women the same wage closes the wage gap by 15% on average, but has unintended consequences as employers adjust on the hiring margin." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Giménez-Nadal, J. Ignacio & José Alberto Molina (2020): The Gender Gap in Time Allocation in Europe. (IZA discussion paper 13461), 42 S.

Abstract

"This article explores the gender gap in time allocation in Europe, offering up-to-date statistics and information on several factors that may help to explain these differences. Prior research has identified several factors affecting the time individuals devote to paid work, unpaid work, and child care, and the gender gaps in these activities, but most research refers to single countries, and general patterns are rarely explored. Cross-country evidence on gender gaps in paid work, unpaid work, and child care is offered, and explanations based on education, earnings, and household structure are presented, using data from the EUROSTAT and the Multinational Time Use Surveys. There are large cross-country differences in the gender gaps in paid work, unpaid work, and child care, which remain after controlling for socio-demographic characteristics, although the gender gap in paid work dissipates when the differential gendered relationship between socio-demographic characteristics and paid work is taken into account. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of gender gaps in Europe, helping to focus recent debates on how to tackle inequality in Europe, and clarifying the factors that contribute to gender inequalities in the uses of time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Goraus, Karolina, Joanna Tyrowicz & Lucas van der Velde (2020): How rankings disguise gender inequality: a comparative analysis of cross-country gender equality rankings based on adjusted wage gaps. (GRAPE working paper 46), Warszawa, 23 S.

Abstract

"In the case of gender wage gaps, adjusting adequately for individual characteristics requires prior assessment of several important deficiencies, primarily whether a given labor market is characterized by gendered selection into employment, gendered segmentation and whether these mechanisms differ along the distribution of wages. Whether a country is perceived as more equal than others depends on the interaction between the method of adjusting gender wage gap for individual characteristics and the prevalence of these deficiencies. We make the case that this interaction is empirically relevant by comparing the country rankings for the adjusted gender wage gap among 23 EU countries. In this relatively homogeneous group of countries, the interaction between method and underlying deficiencies leads to substantial variation in the extent of unjustified inequality. A country may change its place in the ranking by as much as ten positions - both towards greater equality and towards greater inequality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lauri, Triin, Kaire Põder & Rossella Ciccia (2020): Pathways to gender equality. A configurational analysis of childcare instruments and outcomes in 21 European countries. In: Social Policy and Administration, Jg. 54, H. 5, S. 646-665. DOI:10.1111/spol.12562

Abstract

"The ability to produce desired outcomes represents an important basis of the legitimacy of social policies. Nonetheless, policy outcomes have not systematically figured in the analysis of childcare regimes despite growing political interest in issues such as female employment, gender wage gap, and men's involvement in childcare. In this article, we use fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis to investigate the relationship between the configuration of policy instruments, attitudes toward childcare and outcomes in 21 European countries. Our results show that there is only one mix of policy instruments consistently linked with positive gen- der equality outcomes and this route has the quality of the universal caregiver model. It also demonstrates that both a combination of policy instruments and favorable attitudinal factors are necessary to produce desirable outcomes in the gender division of paid work and unpaid childcare." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Miettinen, Anneli & Marika Jalovaara (2020): Unemployment delays first birth but not for all. Life stage and educational differences in the effects of employment uncertainty on first births. In: Advances in life course research, Jg. 43. DOI:10.1016/j.alcr.2019.100320

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Solaz, Anne, Marika Jalovaara, Michaela Kreyenfeld, Silvia Meggiolaro, Dimitri Mortelmans & Inge Pasteels (2020): Unemployment and separation: Evidence from five European countries. In: Journal of Family Research, Jg. 32, H. 1, S. 145-176. DOI:10.20377/jfr-368

Abstract

"Seit der 1970er Jahren zeichnen sich viele europäische Länder durch hohe Trennungsraten wie auch hohe Arbeitslosenquoten aus. Bislang ist jedoch unklar, in welchem Zusammenhang ökonomische Entwicklungen und die Stabilität von Partnerschaften stehen. Dieser Beitrag befasst sich damit, wie Arbeitslosigkeit, gemessen auf der Mikro- und Makroebene, das Trennungsrisiko in fünf europäischen Ländern in der Zeit vor der Finanz- und Wirtschaftskrise beeinflusst hat. Auf Basis umfassender Längsschnittdaten aus Belgien, Finnland, Frankreich, Deutschland und Italien zeigen die empirischen Analysen, in der diskrete Zeitmodelle verwendet werden, dass Arbeitslosigkeit in allen Ländern das Trennungsrisiko prinzipiell erhöht. Während sich vor allem auf der Mikroebene zeigt, dass die individuelle Arbeitslosigkeitserfahrung des Mannes einen positiven Einfluss auf das Trennungsrisiko ausübt, ergeben sich jedoch keine statistisch signifikanten Zusammenhänge auf der Makroebene. Der Einfluss der Arbeitslosigkeit der Frau ist weniger stark ausgeprägt als jene des Mannes und variiert deutlich zwischen den Ländern. In Deutschland und Italien, wo bis vor kurzem Familie und Erwerbstätigkeit wenig vereinbar waren, gibt es keinen statistisch signifikanten Zusammenhang von weiblicher Arbeitslosigkeit und Trennungsraten." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Barbieri, Paolo, Giorgio Cutuli, Raffaele Guetto & Stefani Scherer (2019): Part-time employment as a way to increase women's employment: (Where) does it work? In: International Journal of Comparative Sociology, Jg. 60, H. 4, S. 249-268. DOI:10.1177/0020715219849463

Abstract

"Part-time employment has repeatedly been proposed as a solution for integrating women into the labor market; however, empirical evidence supporting a causal link is mixed. In this text, we investigate the extent to which increasing part-time employment is a valid means of augmenting women's labor market participation. We pay particular attention to the institutional context and the related characteristics of part-time employment in European countries to test the conditions under which this solution is a viable option. The results reveal that part-time employment may strengthen female employment in Continental Europe and especially in Southern Europe, where an increase in part-time employment - even if it is demand-side driven - leads to greater employment participation among women. We also discuss some policy implications and trade-offs: Although part-time work can lead to higher numbers of employed women, it does so at the cost of increasing gendered labor market segregation. We analyze data from the European Labor Force Survey (EU-LFS) 1992 - 2011 for 19 countries and 188 regions and exploit regional variation over time while controlling for time-constant regional characteristics, time-varying regional labor market features, and (time-varying) confounding factors at the national level." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Flynn, Lindsay B. (2019): I'll Just Stay Home : Employment Inequality Among Parents. In: Social Politics, Jg. 26, H. 3, S. 394-418. DOI:10.1093/sp/jxy023

Abstract

"How does homeownership magnify existing gender disparities in the labor markets of the rich OECD countries? Men and women, and especially mothers and fathers, respond to homeownership differently. Owners work more hours than renters but mothers experience an ownership penalty while fathers solidify their market attachment. Both responses increase the gender gap. As such, governments pursuing dual policy objectives of promoting homeownership and greater gender parity in the labor market will find their policies working at cross-purposes. This paper analyzes the effect of homeownership on labor market attachment and explains why mothers and fathers respond to it in different ways." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hek, Margriet van & Tanja van der Lippe (2019): Are female managers agents of change or cogs in the machine? An assessment with three-level manager-employee linked data. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 35, H. 3, S. 316-331. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcz008

Abstract

"In this study, we investigate whether female managers contribute to greater gender equality in organizations. Specifically, we examine whether women's and men's earnings are affected by the share of female managers in their organization, and by being supervised by a female manager. We formulate opposing hypotheses arguing that women are either change agents who reduce gender inequality in earnings in their organization, or cogs in the machine who do not influence or even enlarge gender inequality in earnings. We employ unique manager-employee linked data from nine countries to test these hypotheses. Results are in line with the weak version of the women as cogs in the machine hypothesis: women's and men's earnings are not affected by the share of female managers in their organization, nor by being supervised by a female manager. Gender equality in earnings is thus not stimulated by female managerial representation. Between-country variations in results are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lund, Rebecca, Susan Meriläinen & Janne Tienari (2019): New masculinities in universities? Discourses, ambivalence and potential change. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 26, H. 10, S. 1376-1397. DOI:10.1111/gwao.12383

Abstract

"In this paper, we explore forms and possible implications of new masculinities in universities, and elucidate how they relate to hegemonic masculinity. 'New masculinities' coins a particular tradition of naming in Nordic masculinity studies. In the Nordic context, gendered social relations are shaped by State policies and equality discourses, which are increasingly embracing father friendly initiatives. New masculinities refers to the increased involvement of men in caring practices and especially in fathering. Our empirical study comprises in-depth interviews with young male academics in a Finnish business school. We elucidate, first, the ambivalence and struggles between masculinities in the discourses of these men and, second, how the construction of masculinities is specific to societal, socio-cultural, and local contexts. Relations of class, and middle class notions of the 'good life' in particular, emerge as central for understanding the experiences of these men. Beyond the Nordic countries, we argue that while the change potential of caring masculinity stems from particular contexts, the concept of new masculinities is helpful in capturing the ambivalence and struggles between hegemonic and caring masculinities rather than dismissing the latter as subordinate to the former." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Masuda, Aline D., Florencia Sortheix, Barbara Beham & Loren J. Naidoo (2019): Cultural value orientations and work-family conflict. The mediating role of work and family demands. In: Journal of vocational behavior, Jg. 112, H. June, S. 294-310. DOI:10.1016/j.jvb.2019.04.001

Abstract

"The current paper examined the associations between Schwartz's (2006) cultural value orientations and individuals' work-family conflict. Results of multilevel analyses across 19 European countries (N?=?16,145) showed that the cultural value orientation of embeddedness vs. autonomy, hierarchy vs. egalitarianism, and mastery vs. harmony were related to individuals' higher levels of family-to-work conflict (FWC). Embeddedness vs. autonomy was positively related with work-to-family conflict (WFC). These results hold after controlling for both individual-level predictors of WFC and the GLOBE cultural values of in-group collectivism, gender egalitarianism, performance orientation, and power distance. Whereas gender egalitarianism was negatively related to WFC, in-group collectivism was not related to any form of work-family conflict. Also, performance orientation (PO) related to lower FWC and WFC. Further, our analysis yielded significant indirect effects of embeddedness vs. autonomy and hierarchy vs. egalitarianism on FWC via family demands (household size) and on WFC via working demands (total working hours). Implications for theory and practice are discussed." (Author's abstract, © 2019 Elsevier) ((en))

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Rueda-Cantuche, José Manuel, Zornitsa Kutlina-Dimitrova & Nuno Sousa (2019): Female participation in EU exporting activities: jobs and wages. (DG Trade Chief Economist note / European Commission 2019-3), Brüssel, 21 S.

Abstract

"This analysis sheds new insights on the gender-balance of the employment opportunities supported by extra-EU exports. It shows that in 2017 more than 13 million female workers in the EU had jobs thanks to the exports of goods and services to the rest of the world. However, there is a gender gap when it comes to the employment prospects offered by extra-EU exports: only 38% of the jobs dependent on exports to the world are taken up by women. The analysis suggests that such gender gap is largely due to the concentration of female employment in the less export-oriented sectors, notably in services. Furthermore, the current note makes clear that labour compensation for female workers in exports-supported jobs stagnated in comparison to total employment over the time period considered. Although all exports-supported jobs benefit from a wage premium, there is a gender wage gap of 4 p.p." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sánchez-Mira, Núria & Jacqueline O'Reilly (2019): Household employment and the crisis in Europe. In: Work, employment and society, Jg. 33, H. 3, S. 422-443. DOI:10.1177/0950017018809324

Abstract

"The 2008 crisis had a significant impact on household employment in some European countries. An analysis of the EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions generated a new cross-national typology of household employment structures and showed how these changed during the crisis and austerity period, capturing the experiences of high and low qualified households. Findings indicate that dual earning households are not always a consequence of gender equality but result from economic necessity or employment opportunities. The re-emergence of traditional male breadwinner households is often the result of female unemployment, especially for lower educated women. An increase in female single earners and workless households is evident in countries hit hardest by the employment crisis. The value of this cross-national typology, rooted in the interaction of educational effects and employment opportunities, is allowing comparison both within and between European countries, going beyond established typologies based on policy frameworks or gender cultures." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Aumayr-Pintar, Christine, Anna-Karin Gustafsson, Anna Savolainen & Carsten Jørgensen (2018): Pay transparency in Europe. First experiences with gender pay reports and audits in four Member States. (Eurofound research report / European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions), Dublin, 18 S. DOI:10.2806/577051

Abstract

"In light of the limited action in many Member States to introduce or review gender pay transparency instruments as recommended, in November 2017 the European Commission announced the possible need for further targeted measures at EU level. This report reviews experiences in four Member States - Austria, Denmark, Sweden and Finland - based on their company-level gender pay reports and audits. Evaluations point to a 'bumpy ride' in terms of compliance - at least in the initial phase of rolling out the instruments in some countries - and highlight room for improvement in engaging employee representatives and in raising employees' awareness. The need to tackle knowledge gaps around the instruments right from the start is a lesson to be learnt from the experiences of the first movers. Soft measures to accompany enforceable mandatory requirements seem to be in demand and to be working well. Ultimately, the success of the instrument depends on the attitudes of the actors, the extent to which they acknowledge the existence of unjustified gender pay gaps and their willingness to engage in a meaningful dialogue and follow-up." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Castellano, Rosalia & Antonella Rocca (2018): Gender disparities in European labour markets. A comparison between female and male employees. In: International Labour Review, Jg. 157, H. 4, S. 589-608. DOI:10.1111/ilr.12052

Abstract

"In recent decades, the dramatic increase in female labour force participation was connected to significant changes in the economic opportunities reserved to women. However, gender disparities in the labour market still persist in many forms.
In this study we want to verify if in the European labour markets higher gender differentials are directly connected with bad economic conditions. Starting from the GGLMI, a composite indicator designed and developed by the authors in a previous study, besides updating the results, we construct other three composite indicators analysing separately female and male conditions in the labour market and the gender gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Dahl, Malte & Niels Krog (2018): Experimental Evidence of Discrimination in the Labour Market. Intersections between Ethnicity, Gender, and Socio-Economic Status. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 34, H. 4, S. 402-417. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcy020

Abstract

"This article presents evidence of ethnic discrimination in the recruitment process from a field experiment conducted in the Danish labour market. In a correspondence experiment, fictitious job applications were randomly assigned either a Danish or Middle Eastern-sounding name and sent to real job openings. In addition to providing evidence on the extent of ethnic discrimination in the Danish labour market, the study offers two novel contributions to the literature more generally. First, because a majority of European correspondence experiments have relied solely on applications with male aliases, there is limited evidence on the way gender and ethnicity interact across different occupations. By randomly assigning gender and ethnicity, this study suggests that ethnic discrimination is strongly moderated by gender: minority males are consistently subject to a much larger degree of discrimination than minority females across different types of occupations. Second, this study addresses a key critique of previous correspondence experiments by examining the potential confounding effect of socio-economic status related to the names used to represent distinct ethnic groups. The results support the notion that differences in callbacks are caused exclusively by the ethnic traits." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Grigoli, Francesco, Zsóka Kóczán & Petia Topalova (2018): Drivers of labor force participation in advanced economies. Macro and micro evidence. (GLO discussion paper / Global Labor Organization 265), Maastricht, 39 S.

Abstract

"Despite significant headwinds from population aging in most advanced economies (AEs), labor force participation rates show remarkably divergent trajectories both across countries and across different groups of workers. Participation increased sharply among prime-age women and, more recently, older workers, but fell among the young and prime-age men. This paper investigates the determinants of these trends using aggregate and individual-level data. We find that the bulk of the dramatic increase in the labor force attachment of prime-age women and older workers in the past three decades can be explained by changes in labor market policies and institutions, structural transformation, and gains in educational attainment. Technological advances such as automation, on the other hand, weighed on the labor supply of prime-age and older workers. In light of the dramatic demographic shifts expected in the coming decades in many AEs, our findings underscore the need to invest in education and training, reform the tax system, reduce early retirement incentives, improve the job-matching process, and help individuals combine family and work life in order to alleviate the pressures from aging on labor supply." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Matteazzi, Eleonora, Ariane Pailhé & Anne Solaz (2018): Part-time employment, the gender wage gap and the role of wage-setting institutions. Evidence from 11 European countries. In: European journal of industrial relations, Jg. 24, H. 3, S. 221-241. DOI:10.1177/0959680117738857

Abstract

"We examine how far the over-representation of women in part-time jobs can explain the gender gap in hourly earnings, and also investigate how far wage-setting institutions are correlated with the overall gender wage gap and the female part-time wage gap. Using European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) 2009 data for 11 European countries, we implement a double decomposition of the gender wage gap: between men and women employed full-time and between full-time and part-time working women. This shows that the wage penalty of women employed part-time occurs mainly through the segregation of part-time jobs, but the full-time gender pay gap remains mostly unexplained. At the macro level, the gender wage gap tends to be higher in countries where part-time employment is more widespread. Some wage-setting institutions seem to reduce the female full-time/part-time pay gap and the gender gap among full-time workers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sundsbø, Astrid O. (2018): Parenting support in Europe's North. How is it understood and evaluated in research? In: Social policy and society, Jg. 17, H. 3, S. 431-441. DOI:10.1017/S1474746418000027

Abstract

"Parenting support in the Nordic countries builds upon a century-long tradition of controls and services run by municipalities and county councils (Hagelund, 2008; Danielsen and Mühleisen, 2009; Lundqvist, 2015). However, with the introduction of structured parental guidance programmes from the 1990s onward (mainly based on research insights and experiences from the US and UK), new elements have been added to the former policy legacy (Lundqvist, 2015)." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Abstract

"Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, commonly known as the Nordic countries, have been leaders in the development of modern family and gender policy, and the explicit promotion of gender equality at home, at work, and in public life. Today, on many measures, they boast some of the most gender-equal labour markets in the OECD.
This report shows that improvements in gender equality have contributed considerably to economic growth in the Nordic countries. Increases in female employment alone are estimated to account for anywhere between roughly 0.05 and 0.40 percentage points to average annual GDP per capita growth - equivalent to 3 to 20% of total GDP per capita growth over the past 50 years or so, depending on the country.
The Nordic countries are closer than most to achieving gender equality in the labour market. But the last mile may well prove to be the longest one. To make further progress, a continued assessment of the effectiveness of existing public policies and workplace practices is needed. Only with resolve and a continued focus can Nordic countries ensure that men and women contribute to their economies and societies in gender equal measure." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Albrecht, Clara, Anita Fichtl & Peter Redler (2017): Fathers in charge? Parental leave policies for fathers in Europe. In: ifo DICE report, Jg. 15, H. 1, S. 49-51.

Abstract

"Despite the fact that most parental leave policies in European countries have also entitled men, take-up rates by fathers have been low. In turn, the traditional male breadwinner model has prevailed in the EU, even though the level of education of men and women has converged fully. At the same time, fathers do want to spend time with their newborn children (Huerta et al. 2013). A trend towards the implementation of parental leave policies for fathers - also known as 'daddy months' or 'daddy quotas' - has emerged. The potential goals of these policies are greater gender equality, both in the family and in the labour market, a better work-life-balance for families and stronger bonding between father and child. Encouraged by state regulations and the EU-Directive 2010/18/EU2 parental leave take-up rates have been rising over the past decade, but still remain low." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Castellano, Rosalia & Rocca Antonella (2017): The dynamic of the gender gap in the European labour market in the years of economic crisis. In: Quality and Quantity. International Journal of Methodology, Jg. 51, H. 3, S. 1337-1357. DOI:10.1007/s11135-016-0334-1

Abstract

"Closing the gender gap in the labour market is one of the main goals of European Union and part of a wider effort to eliminate social inequalities. In recent decades, all developed countries have suffered a deep global economic crisis, that has increased social and economic inequalities. In Europe, the crisis involved problems of European stability and growth, but the crisis did not affect the euro-area countries to the same extent, and the consequences and recovery were correspondingly asymmetrical. In this paper, we analyse the changes that occurred in the gender gap in the European labour markets from 2007 to 2012 to understand if the recession has further increased or reduced the gender differentials. At this aim, we combine the use of two different statistical methodologies. Through the composite indicator methodology, we test how the rank of countries in relation to gender equality has changed in these years. In addition, the Dynamic Factor Analysis allows us to identify the factors that drive these changes. Moreover, the contextual analysis of the measures that were utilized to face the crisis could give policy makers some useful suggestions on the most efficacious actions to take." (Author's abstract, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Dolado, Juan J., Cecilia García-Peñalosa & Linas Tarasonis (2017): The changing nature of gender selection into employment. Europe over the Great Recession. (IZA discussion paper 10729), Bonn, 40 S.

Abstract

"The aim of this paper is to evaluate the role played by selectivity issues induced by nonemployment in explaining gender wage gap patterns in the EU since the onset of the Great Recession. We show that male selection into the labour market, traditionally disregarded, has increased. This is particularly the case in peripheral EU countries, where dramatic drops in male unskilled jobs have taken place during the crisis. As regards female selection, traditionally positive, we document mixed findings. While it has declined in some countries, as a result of increasing female LFP due to an added-worker effect, it has become even more positive in other countries. This is due to adverse labour demand shifts in industries which are intensive in temporary work where women are over-represented. These adverse shifts may have more than offset the rise in unskilled female labour supply." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Foster, Liam, Ruby Chau & Sam Yu (2017): The impact of defamilisation measures on gender and pensions. A comparison between the UK and seven other European countries. In: The journal of poverty and social justice, Jg. 25, H. 3, S. 199-217. DOI:10.1332/175982717X14999284090397

Abstract

"This article uses individual-based and state-led care-focused defamilisation indices to explore women's employment opportunities and experiences and their implications for pension contributions. These two types of defamilisation indices are applied to eight European countries (Belgium, Finland, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and the UK) which shows that the UK has less generous defamilisation measures than its European counterparts. It indicates that the use of defamilisation measures along with pension policies which are not based on the male breadwinner ideology have the capacity to moderate economic inequalities between men and women in older age." (Author's abstract, © 2017 Policy Press) ((en))

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Grönlund, Anne, Karin Halldén & Charlotta Magnusson (2017): A Scandinavian success story? Women's labour market outcomes in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. In: Acta sociologica, Jg. 60, H. 2, S. 97-119. DOI:10.1177/0001699316660595

Abstract

"In current research, the extensive family policies of the Scandinavian countries have been problematized and described as hampering women's careers. However, mechanisms have been little investigated and the Scandinavian countries are often regarded as a single policy model. Based on an account of institutional variety we study gender gaps in hourly wages and access to authority positions in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden and explore the importance of segregation, skills and work interruptions. The analysis uses pooled cross-sectional data from the European Social Survey (ESS) for 2004 and 2010. The results show that gender gaps vary both in size and regarding the mechanisms producing them. In particular, we find that gender segregation has a radically different impact in the four countries. The analysis suggests that the mechanisms linking family policies to labour market outcomes are more complex than envisaged in the current debate and point to the importance of comparing seemingly similar countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hauret, Laetitia & Donald R. Williams (2017): Cross-national analysis of gender differences in job-satisfaction. In: Industrial relations, Jg. 56, H. 2, S. 203-235. DOI:10.1111/irel.12171

Abstract

"Research over the past two decades has found significant gender differences in subjective job satisfaction, with the result that women report greater satisfaction than men in some countries. This paper examines the so-called 'gender paradox' using data from the European Social Survey for a subset of fourteen countries in the European Union. We focus on the hypothesis that women place higher values on certain work characteristics than men, which explains the observed differential. Using estimates from Probit and ordered Probit models, we conduct standard Blinder - Oaxaca decompositions to estimate the impact that differential valuations of characteristics have on the gender difference in self-reported job satisfaction. The results indicate that females continue to report higher levels of job satisfaction than do men in some countries, and the difference remains even after controlling for a wide range of personal and job characteristics and working conditions. The decompositions suggest that a relatively small share of the gender differential is attributable to gender differences in the weights placed on working conditions in most countries. Rather, gender differences in job characteristics contribute relatively more to explaining the gender - job satisfaction differential." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Javornik, Jana & Anna Kurowska (2017): Work and Care Opportunities under Different Parental Leave Systems. Gender and Class Inequalities in Northern Europe. In: Social policy and administration, Jg. 51, H. 4, S. 617-637. DOI:10.1111/spol.12316

Abstract

"This article analyses public parental leave in eight northern European countries, and assesses its opportunity potential to facilitate equal parental involvement and employment, focusing on gender and income opportunity gaps. It draws on Sen's capability and Weber's ideal-types approach to analyze policies across countries. It offers the ideal parental leave architecture, one which minimizes the policy-generated gender and class inequality in parents' opportunities to share parenting and keep their jobs, thus providing real opportunities for different groups of individuals to achieve valued functionings as parents. Five policy indicators are created using benchmarking and graphical analysis. Two sources of opportunity inequality are considered: the leave system as the opportunity and constraint structure, and the socio-economic contexts as the conversion factors. The article produces a comprehensive overview of national leave policies, visually presenting leave policy across countries. Considering policy capability ramifications beyond gender challenges a family policy-cluster idea and the Nordic-Baltic divide. It demonstrates that leave systems in northern Europe are far from homogenous; they diverge in the degree to which they create real opportunities for parents and children as well as in key policy dimensions through which these opportunities are created." (Author's abstract, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Jensen, Per H., Rasmus Juul Møberg, Ralf Och & Birgit Pfau-Effinger (2017): Explaining differences in women's working time in European cities. In: European Societies, Jg. 19, H. 2, S. 138-156. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2016.1268700

Abstract

"Women's work-time pattern in Europe is highly heterogeneous; some women work short or long part-time hours, while others work full-time. Few studies, however, have analysed the factors constituting women's work-time pattern. The article aims to explain why women's working time differs in five relatively big European cities, which represent an urban environment that is particularly supportive to women's employment, and the study is based on a new original telephone survey from 2013 among women 25 - 64 years of age. It is hypothesized and analysed how women's work-time pattern is the result of women's family-cultural orientation, individual and family characteristic, the gendered division of household task, women's position in the vertical and horizontal division of labour, and city of residence. Findings support the theoretical assumptions that there is a significant relationship between family-cultural orientation and work practices." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kanji, Shireen & Robin Samuel (2017): Male breadwinning revisited. How specialisation, gender role attitudes and work characteristics affect overwork and underwork in Europe. In: Sociology, Jg. 51, H. 2, S. 339-356. DOI:10.1177/0038038515596895

Abstract

"We examine how male breadwinning and fatherhood relate to men's overwork and underwork in western Europe. Male breadwinners should be less likely to experience overwork than other men, particularly when they have children, if specialising in paid work suits them. However, multinomial logistic regression analysis of the European Social Survey data from 2010 (n = 4662) challenges this position: male breadwinners, with and without children, want to work fewer than their actual hours, making visible one of the downsides of specialisation. Male breadwinners wanting to work fewer hours is specifically related to the job interfering with family life, as revealed by a comparison of the average marginal effects of variables across models. Work - life interference has an effect over and beyond the separate effects of work characteristics and family structure, showing the salience of the way work and life articulate." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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O'Brien, Margaret & Karin Wall (Hrsg.) (2017): Comparative perspectives on work-life balance and gender equality. Fathers on leave alone. (Life course research and social policies 06), Cham: Springer London, 266 S., Anhang. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-42970-0

Abstract

"This book portrays men's experiences of home alone leave and how it affects their lives and family gender roles in different policy contexts and explores how this unique parental leave design is implemented in these contrasting policy regimes. The book brings together three major theoretical strands: social policy, in particular the literature on comparative leave policy developments; family and gender studies, in particular the analysis of gendered divisions of work and care and recent shifts in parenting and work-family balance; critical studies of men and masculinities, with a specific focus on fathers and fathering in contemporary western societies and life-courses. Drawing on empirical data from in-depth interviews with fathers across eleven countries, the book shows that the experiences and social processes associated with fathers' home alone leave involve a diversity of trends, revealing both innovations and absence of change, including pluralization as well as the constraining influence of policy, gender, and social context. As a theoretical and empirical book it raises important issues on modernization of the life course and the family in contemporary societies. The book will be of particular interest to scholars in comparing western societies and welfare states as well as to scholars seeking to understand changing work-life policies and family life in societies with different social and historical pathways." (Publisher information, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Riekhoff, Aart-Jan & Noora Järnefelt (2017): Gender Differences in Retirement in a Welfare State with High Female Labour Market Participation and Competing Exit Pathways. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 33, H. 6, S. 791-807. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcx077

Abstract

"In this article, we analyse whether and how, in the context of high female labour market participation and competing exit pathways, Finnish women's retirement differs from men's. We test for the influence of gendered life courses, social stratification, late career vulnerability, and sector. Using data from the Finnish Centre for Pensions, we created individual sequences of monthly income statuses between ages 57 and 65 for a cohort born in 1948 (N?=?55,971). Following sequence analysis, we identified eight distinct trajectory clusters that represent the variety of labour market withdrawal through the competing exit pathways. We linked these clusters to a set of sociodemographic background variables from Finnish Longitudinal Employer - Employee Data. We find that women's retirement trajectories do not differ substantially from men's, but that the factors affecting the take-up of those trajectories show significant differences. Marital status, education, income, and especially public sector employment play a greater role in determining the timing and mode of women's retirement. The findings suggest that women's retirement is different because their marital status, education, and income have a stronger effect on their attachment to the labour market and because they work in particular female-dominated occupations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Schleutker, Elina (2017): Women's work-life preferences. Reconceptualization and cross-country description over time. In: European Societies, Jg. 19, H. 3, S. 292-312. DOI:10.1080/14616696.2017.1290266

Abstract

"According to Hakim's preference theory, women can be divided into three groups based on their work - family preferences: home-centered, adaptive and work-centered. Here it is argued that Hakim's conceptualization of the adaptive women is unsatisfactory, as it does not take into consideration how the adaptive women want to combine work and family. The paper offers a reconceptualization of the adaptive group. Based on when women want to return to employment after childbirth, and how many hours they would like to work, three types of adaptive women are distinguished: the home-oriented adaptive women, the truly adaptive women and the work-oriented adaptive women. To demonstrate the fruitfulness of the reconceptualization, a cross-sectional descriptive study of women's preferences over time is conducted by employing data from International Social Survey Programme." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bertram, Hans (2016): Die Rushhour des Lebens: Auswege und Lösungsmodelle. In: Archiv für Wissenschaft und Praxis der sozialen Arbeit, Jg. 47, H. 2, S. 16-33.

Abstract

"Aus der Rushhour des Lebens, in der berufliche Anforderungen und die Fürsorge für Kinder vereinbart werden müssen, gibt es keine einfachen Auswege. Viele Lösungsmodelle scheitern daran, dass die notwendige Zeit für Kinder nicht beliebig disponibel ist und dass noch immer strukturelle Einkommensunterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen bestehen. Zudem benachteiligen sie Alleinerziehende. In diesem Beitrag werden die zeitlichen Belastungen von Eltern im europäischen Vergleich untersucht und auf dieser Grundlage flexible Arbeitszeiten im Lebenslauf als mögliche Lösung vorgestellt." (Autorenreferat, © Deutscher Verein für öffentliche und private Fürsorge e.V.)

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Bertrand, Marianne, Patricia Cortés, Claudia Olivetti & Jessica Pan (2016): Social norms, labor market opportunities, and the marriage gap for skilled women. (NBER working paper 22015), Cambrige, Mass., 65 S. DOI:10.3386/w22015

Abstract

"In most of the developed world, skilled women marry at a lower rate than unskilled women. We document heterogeneity across countries in how the marriage gap for skilled women has evolved over time. As labor market opportunities for women have improved, the marriage gap has been growing in some countries but shrinking in others. We discuss a theoretical model in which the (negative) social attitudes towards working women might contribute towards the lower marriage rate of skilled women, and might also induce a non-linear relationship between their labor market prospects and their marriage outcomes. The model is suited to understand the dynamics of the marriage gap for skilled women over time within a country with set social attitudes towards working women. The model also delivers predictions about how the marriage gap for skilled women should react to changes in their labor market opportunities across countries with more or less conservative attitudes towards working women. We test the key predictions of this model in a panel of 23 developed countries, as well as in a panel of US states." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bünning, Mareike & Matthias Pollmann-Schult (2016): Family policies and fathers' working hours. Cross-national differences in the paternal labour supply. In: Work, employment and society, Jg. 30, H. 2, S. 256-274. DOI:10.1177/0950017015578999

Abstract

"Despite extensive research on the effect of family policies on the labour supply of mothers, little is known about how these policies affect fathers' labour market outcomes. Using European panel data (EU-SILC) from 2003 to 2009 and multi-level models, this study analyses the effect of family policies on fathers' working hours. The results indicate that fathers work less than childless men if they live in countries that offer well paid, non-transferable parental leave for fathers, short parental leave for mothers and generous family allowances. The effects, however, are strongly contingent on fathers' educational levels. Whereas short maternal leaves are associated with shorter working hours among highly educated fathers, generous family allowances and father friendly parental leave schemes reduce the working hours of less educated fathers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Castro-García, Carmen & Maria Pazos-Moran (2016): Parental leave policy and gender equality in Europe. In: Feminist economics, Jg. 22, H. 3, S. 51-73. DOI:10.1080/13545701.2015.1082033

Abstract

"This article uses data from 2008 - 10 to analyze parental leave policies in twenty-one European countries and their influence on men's behavior. It examines entitlement characteristics, such as nontransferability, duration, payment, compulsory period, and other policies to assess their effect on the proportion of leave men use out of the total parental leave in each country. The findings, which suggest that a large majority of men take nontransferable and highly paid leave, and a small minority take other types, provide the basis for developing the Parental Leave Equality Index (PLEI). PLEI ranks countries by the degree to which parental leave policies reinforce or diminish the gendered division of labor. Results indicate that although Iceland's parental leave policies do the most to advance gender equity, no country has equal, nontransferable, and well-paid leave for each parent. This policy arrangement would be a precondition to men's and women's equal participation in childcare." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Davaki, Konstantina (2016): Differences in men's and women's work, care and leisure time. Study for the FEMM committee. Brüssel, 63 S. DOI:10.2861/381996

Abstract

"The economic crisis has profoundly affected the labour market and private life of men and women. This study examines the interrelation of policies with the ways women and men allocate time to paid work, care and leisure and the gendered outcomes produced in different socio-economic and cultural settings. It shows that policies are powerful tools which can contribute to a better work-life balance and transform gender roles in accordance to the targets of EU2020 strategy and EU28 commitment to gender equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Edlund, Jonas & Ida Öun (2016): Who should work and who should care? Attitudes towards the desirable division of labour between mothers and fathers in five European countries. In: Acta sociologica, Jg. 59, H. 2, S. 151-169. DOI:10.1177/0001699316631024

Abstract

"In this article, we study attitudes towards the gendered division of paid and unpaid work from a comparative perspective. Based on the notion that political institutions are important in structuring individuals' orientations, five countries with different family policy arrangements are included in the analysis: Denmark, Finland, Germany, Poland and Sweden. Previous comparative attitude research has a strong bias towards public opinion about women's employment, while research on attitudes towards men's participation in care work is rare. Drawing on data from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) 2012, we use latent class analysis to explore public opinion about: (a) how parents should divide the responsibilities of economic provision and unpaid work; and (b) whether and how parents should divide paid parental leave between them. The strongest support for a traditional organization of work and care is found in Poland, while the strongest support for an equal sharing of work and care responsibilities is found in Sweden. Among the Nordic countries, results differ. While those holding non-traditional ideals in Denmark and Finland emphasize the importance of full-time work for both parents, non-traditional Swedes instead emphasize that both parents should cut back their work hours and thereby share the responsibility for earning and caring in the family." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Feldman, Karie & Brian K. Gran (2016): Is what's best for dads best for families? Paternity leave policies and equity across forty-four nations. In: Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, Jg. 43, H. 1, S. 95-119.

Abstract

"In a global economy, paternity leave policies represent one of the most significant expansions of the welfare state that seek to help fathers respond to socio-economic pressures on their work and families. Policy makers who strongly promote socio-economic equity may respond to these global changes with new policy formulae meant to encourage involvement of fathers in their families. Nevertheless, scholars have limited understanding of who benefits from paternity leave policies and what these benefits mean to families. The present study is a comparative analysis of paternity leave policies across forty-four countries. This paper first presents a typology of paternity leave policies. This typology consists of seven criteria that range from duration of benefits to amount of benefits to employment security. This typology is then applied to forty-four countries. The present study demonstrates that a surprisingly small number of countries are devoted to family equity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Halldén, Karin, Asaf Levanon & Tamar Kricheli-Katz (2016): Does the motherhood wage penalty differ by individual skill and country family policy? A longitudinal study of ten European countries. In: Social Politics, Jg. 23, H. 3, S. 363-388. DOI:10.1093/sp/jxv032

Abstract

"Previous research shows considerable variation in the strength of the motherhood wage penalty across countries, which has partially been attributed to differences in policies supporting maternal employment. Although such policies are usually understood to be complementary, their effects on workers - and especially on employees in jobs of diverse skills levels - may differ. Using longitudinal data from the European Community Household Panel (ECHP) for ten countries, this article describes the associations of different maternal employment policies with the motherhood wage penalty by skill. Findings from Hausman - Taylor panel models indicate that both a high share of small children in publicly funded child care facilities and long paid maternity leave are associated with a decrease in the motherhood wage penalty regardless of skill level. The standardized total effects were larger for the latter policy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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McDaniel, Anne (2016): The role of cultural contexts in explaining cross-national gender gaps in stem expectations. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 32, H. 1, S. 122-133. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcv078

Abstract

"In recent decades, women have made impressive inroads in education and the labour market in most countries; yet, they often remain under-represented in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) professions. One way to understand women's under-representation in STEM is to examine how boys and girls develop their career expectations during adolescence, as this is a critical time when individuals begin to plan their futures. Prior cross-national research finds that gender stratification in education, work, and politics in a country affects the size of male-favourable gender gaps on math and science achievement tests for adolescents. Countries with more gender equality have smaller gender gaps in math and science. But, it is unknown how gender stratification or cultural ideologies impact the development of boys' and girls' STEM career expectations. Do countries with less gender equality have smaller male-favourable gender gaps in STEM career expectations? Do countries with less gender egalitarian have larger male-favourable gender gaps in STEM career expectations? Using data on student's occupational expectations from the 2006 Program for International Student Assessment and data on country-level gender stratification and genderegalitarian ideologies from the World Bank and European Values Survey, I study the gender gap in 15-year- olds' expectations to enter a STEM career across 24 countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Moilanen, Sanna, Vanessa May, Eija Räikkönen, Eija Sevón & Marja-Leena Laakso (2016): Mothers' non-standard working and childcare-related challenges. A comparison between lone and coupled mothers. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 36, H. 1/2, S. 36-52. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-11-2014-0094

Abstract

"Purpose
- The purpose of this paper is to particularly focus on lone-mother families, comparing the childcare-related challenges experienced by working lone mothers and coupled mothers in three European countries in the context of a 24/7 economy and non-standard working hours (e.g. evening, night and weekend work).
Design/methodology/approach
- This study utilises survey data from Finnish, Dutch and British working mothers (n=1,106) collected as part of the 'Families 24/7' research project. Multivariate regression analysis is used to analyse the associations between childcare-related challenges, maternal non-standard working, lone motherhood and country of residence.
Findings
- The results indicated similar results across the three countries by showing that working lone mothers experience childcare-related challenges more often compared with coupled mothers. Furthermore, an increase in maternal non-standard working associated positively with increased childcare-related challenges in both lone mother and coupled families but lone motherhood did not moderate this association. The findings suggest that, regardless of family form, families in all three countries struggle with childcare arrangements when the mother works during non-standard hours. This possibly relates to the inadequate provision of state-subsidised and flexible formal childcare during non-standard hours and to the country-specific maternal work hours cultures.
Originality/value
- This study responds to the need for comparative research on the reconciliation of maternal non-standard working and childcare with self-collected data from three European welfare states. The importance of the study is further highlighted by the risks posed to the maintenance of maternal employment and family well-being when reconciliation of work and childcare is unsuccessful, especially in lone-mother families." (Author's abstract, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Murtorinne-Lahtinen, Minna, Sanna Moilanen, Mia Tammelin, Anna Rönkä & Marja-Leena Laakso (2016): Mothers' non-standard working schedules and family time. Enhancing regularity and togetherness. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 36, H. 1/2, S. 119-135. DOI:10.1108/IJSSP-02-2015-0022

Abstract

"Purpose
- The purpose of this paper is to investigate Finnish working mothers' experiences of the effects of non-standard working schedules (NSWS) on family time in two family forms, coupled and lone-parent families. Furthermore the aim is to find out what meanings mothers with NSWS attached to family time paying particular attention to the circumstances in which mothers experienced NSWS positively.
Design/methodology/approach
- Thematic analysis of 20 semi-structured interviews was used to investigate mothers' experiences of the effects of NSWS on family time.
Findings
- The key factor generating positive experiences was the ability to maintain regularity and togetherness, which was enhanced by specific features of work, such as autonomy and regularity, and successful child care arrangements. Also important were the values mothers associated with family time. The results highlighted the more problematic situation of lone-parent families.
Research limitations/implications
- The main limitation of this study was the small sample size.
Practical implications
- The findings show how the parents of small children benefit from the regularity and flexibility in their working hours. Owing to irregular and varying working times, flexible around-the-clock childcare is needed. In Finland, an important question is how to organize the care of small school-aged children. Lone mothers, especially, may need services to help with domestic chores and childcare.
Social implications
- A non-resident parent can also be an important source of childcare. Therefore policymakers should take into account family type, including consideration of the rights to childcare of non-resident parents.
Originality/value
- This study adds to the literature by explaining more in depth, through the richness of qualitative data, the circumstances in which mothers experience NSWS positively." (Author's abstract, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Olivetti, Claudia & Barbara Petrongolo (2016): The evolution of gender gaps in industrialized countries. In: Annual review of economics, Jg. 8, S. 405-434. DOI:10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115329

Abstract

"Women in developed economies have made major advancements in labor markets throughout the past century, but remaining gender differences in pay and employment seem remarkably persistent. This article documents long-run trends in female employment, working hours, and relative wages for a wide cross section of developed economies. It reviews existing work on the factors driving gender convergence, and novel perspectives on remaining gender gaps. Finally, the article emphasizes the interplay between gender trends and the evolution of the industry structure. Based on a shift-share decomposition, it shows that the growth in the service share can explain at least half of the overall variation in female hours, both over time and across countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Olivetti, Claudia & Barbara Petrongolo (2016): The evolution of gender gaps in industrialized countries. (IZA discussion paper 9659), Bonn, 47 S.

Abstract

"Women in developed economies have made major inroads in labor markets throughout the past century, but remaining gender differences in pay and employment seem remarkably persistent. This paper documents long-run trends in female employment, working hours and relative wages for a wide cross-section of developed economies. It reviews existing work on the factors driving gender convergence, and novel perspectives on remaining gender gaps. The paper finally emphasizes the interplay between gender trends and the evolution of the industry structure. Based on a shift-share decomposition, it shows that the growth in the service share can explain at least half of the overall variation in female hours, both over time and across countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Piasna, Agnieszka & Anke C. Plagnol (2016): Arbeitsplatzqualität und weibliche Erwerbsbeteiligung in Europa. In: WSI-Mitteilungen, Jg. 69, H. 4, S. 273-282. DOI:10.5771/0342-300X-2016-4-273

Abstract

"Zahlreiche Untersuchungen belegen, dass die Entscheidung zur beruflichen Weiterarbeit nach der Familiengründung einerseits von persönlichen Umständen abhängt, wie der Notwendigkeit, zum Haushaltseinkommen beizutragen, andererseits aber auch von institutionellen Einflussgrößen wie dem Angebot an erschwinglichen Kinderbetreuungsplätzen. Ergänzend hierzu untersuchen wir anhand von Daten des European Working Conditions Surveys, inwieweit die Qualität der Arbeitsplätze die Erwerbsbiografie von Frauen in den EU-27-Ländern beeinflusst. Unsere Analyse betrachtet drei Einzeldimensionen: Arbeitsplatzsicherheit, Arbeitszeitqualität und intrinsische Arbeitsqualität. Wir stellen fest, dass die Arbeitsplatzqualität von Müttern kleiner Kinder im Schnitt höher ist als die von Frauen ohne betreuungspflichtige Kinder, insbesondere hinsichtlich Arbeitszeit und Beschäftigungssicherheit. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse belegen für die gesamte EU-27 einen weitgehend einheitlichen Zusammenhang zwischen dem Status von Frauen als Mütter kleiner Kinder und der Arbeitsplatzqualität." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Pollmann-Schult, Matthias (2016): What mothers want: The impact of structural and cultural factors on mothers' preferred working hours in Western Europe. In: Advances in life course research, Jg. 29, H. September, S. 16-25. DOI:10.1016/j.alcr.2015.11.002

Abstract

"This study investigates how social policies, gender norms, and the national working time regime shape mothers' preferred working hours. Using data from the European Social Survey (ESS) for 15 countries across Western Europe, the study reveals that generous public child care and cultural support for gender equality are associated with smaller gaps in the preferred working hours between mothers and childless women. High levels of financial support for families, in contrast, predict larger gaps in preferred working hours. The analysis also indicates that a low prevalence of non-standard work and high levels of work-time flexibility reduce the differences in preferred employment hours between mothers and non-mothers. Individual characteristics such as education, gender ideology, and the partners' socioeconomic status greatly impact women's preferred employment hours; however, they do not modify the effect of motherhood. This study concludes that the impact of parenthood on women's employment hours is highly contingent upon various institutional and cultural factors." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Dieckhoff, Martina, Vanessa Gash & Nadia Steiber (2015): Measuring the effect of institutional change on gender inequality in the labour market. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 39, H. March, S. 59-75. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2014.12.001

Abstract

"This article examines the differential impact of labour market institutions on women and men. It carries out longitudinal analyses using repeat cross-sectional data from the EU Labour Force Survey 1992 - 2007 as well as time series data that measure institutional change over the same period. The results contribute to the literature on gendered employment, adding important insights into the impact of labour market institutions over and above family policies that have been the focus of most prior studies on the topic. We find differential effects of institutional change on male and female outcome. Our findings challenge the neo-classical literature on the topic. While our results suggest that men benefit more clearly than women from increases in employment protection, we do not find support for the neo-classical assertion that strong trade unions decrease female employment. Instead, increasing union strength is shown to have beneficial effects for both men's and women's likelihood of being employed on the standard employment contract. Furthermore, in line with other researchers, we find that rising levels of in kind state support to families improve women's employment opportunities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kauhanen, Antti & Sami Napari (2015): Gender differences in careers. In: Annals of Economics and Statistics H. 117/118, S. 61-88. DOI:10.15609/annaeconstat2009.117-118.61

Abstract

"We examine gender differences in careers using a large linked employer-employee dataset on Finnish white-collar manufacturing workers over the period of 1981 - 2006. Our focus is on labour market entrants whom we follow over time. We find that men start their careers from higher ranks of the hierarchy than do women, but the gender differences in education explain much of this gap. Men are also more likely to be promoted than are women, especially during their first years in the labour market, which amplifies the gender differences in hierarchical positions that are already apparent at labour market entry. Men earn higher starting wages than do women, while the results concerning gender differences in the returns to career progression are not clear-cut but depend on the type of career event and on the career phase. Overall, our results help in the understanding of the factors behind the large increase in the gender wage gap during workers' early career." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Abendroth, Anja-Kristin, Matt L. Huffman & Judith Treas (2014): The parity penalty in life course perspective. Motherhood and occupational status in 13 European countries. In: American Sociological Review, Jg. 79, H. 5, S. 993-1014. DOI:10.1177/0003122414545986

Abstract

"Research documents a wage penalty for mothers compared to childless women. We demonstrate there is also an occupational status penalty to motherhood. Interrogating supply- and demand-side explanations of the motherhood penalty from the life course perspective, we formulate and test original hypotheses about the short-term and long-run career implications of parity-specific births. We analyze longitudinal data from the European Community and Household Panel for 13 European countries and eight time points between 1994 and 2001. Our fixed-effects models show that status losses for a first birth are not just short-term but accumulate over the career. The timing of a birth in a woman's life course matters only for older women, who experience a significant penalty to third births. Although the personal strategies that women use to minimize the career costs of motherhood (e.g., having only one child) prove ineffective, our cross-national evidence shows that public policies are linked to the motherhood penalty in occupational status." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Asplund, Rita & Reija Lilja (2014): Wage formation and gender wage gaps. Is there a role for job-task evaluation schemes? In: International journal of manpower, Jg. 35, H. 3, S. 267-290. DOI:10.1108/IJM-04-2014-0091

Abstract

"Purpose - Both academia and policymakers express a strong belief in higher average education levels exerting a narrowing impact on wage inequality in general and gender wage gaps in particular. The purpose of this paper is to scrutinize whether or not this effect extends to R&D- and export-intensive branches such as the technology industry.
Design/methodology/approach - In exploring the impact of individual and job-related background factors and, especially, of job-task evaluation schemes on the size and change in gender wage gaps in the technology industry, the paper applies an elaborated decomposition method based on unconditional quantile regression techniques.
Findings - While changes in standard human capital endowments can explain little, if anything, of the growth in real wages or the widening of wage dispersion among the Finnish technology industry's white-collar workers, a new job-task evaluation scheme introduced in 2002 seems to have succeeded, at least in part, to make the wage-setting process more transparent by re-allocating especially the technology industry's female white-collar workers in a way that better reflects their skills, efforts and responsibilities.
Practical implications - One crucial implication of this finding is that improving the standard human capital of women closer to that of men will not suffice to narrow the gender wage gap in the advanced parts of the economy and, hence, not also the overall gender wage gap. The reason is obvious: concomitant with rising average education levels, other skill aspects have received increasing attention in working life. Consequently, a conscious combination of formal and informal competencies as laid down in well-designed job-task evaluation schemes may, in many instances, offer a more powerful path for tackling the gender wage gap.
Originality/value - While the existing evidence on the impact of performance-related pay on gender wage gaps is still scarce but growing the authors know of no empirical studies analyzing the gender pay-gap effect of job-task evaluation systems." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kässi, Otto (2014): Earnings dynamics of men and women in Finland. Permanent inequality versus earnings instability. In: Empirical economics, Jg. 46, H. 2, S. 451-478. DOI:10.1007/s00181-013-0693-6

Abstract

"I decompose the earnings variance of Finnish male and female workers into its permanent and transitory components using the approach of Baker (J Labor Econ,15:338 - 375, 1997) and Haider (J Labor Econ, 19:799 - 836, 2001) in the spirit of scientific replication. I find that the increasing earnings inequality of men and women is driven by both the transitory and permanent components of earnings. In addition, I find considerable differences in the earnings dynamics of men and women, that have been largely neglected in previous studies of earnings dynamics. The inequality among men is dominated by the permanent component. Conversely, permanent and transitory components are of comparable magnitudes to women. As a corollary, men experience more stable income paths but display larger permanent earnings differences.Women, on the other hand, face more unstable earnings profiles but show smaller permanent differences in earnings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cooke, Lynn Prince, Jani Erola, Marie Evertsson, Michael Gähler, Juho Härkönen, Belinda Hewitt, Marika Jalovaara, Man-Yee Kan, Torkild Hovde Lyngstad, Letizia Mencarini, Jean-Francois Mignot, Dimitri Mortelmans, Anne-Rigt Poortman, Christian Schmitt & Heike Trappe (2013): Labor and love. Wives' employment and divorce risk in its socio-political context. In: Social Politics, Jg. 20, H. 4, S. 482-509. DOI:10.1093/sp/jxt016

Abstract

"We theorize how social policy affects marital stability vis-a-vis macro and micro effects of wives' employment on divorce risk in 11 Western countries. Correlations among 1990s aggregate data on marriage, divorce, and wives' employment rates, along with attitudinal and social policy information, seem to support specialization hypotheses that divorce rates are higher where more wives are employed and where policies support that employment. This is an ecological fallacy, however, because of the nature of the changes in specific countries. At the micro level, we harmonize national longitudinal data on the most recent cohort of wives marrying for the first time and find that the stabilizing effects of a gendered division of labor have ebbed. In the United States with its lack of policy support, a wife's employment still significantly increases the risk of divorce. A wife's employment has no significant effect on divorce risk in Australia, Flanders, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Finland, Norway, and Sweden, wives' employment predicts a significantly lower risk of divorce when compared with wives who are out of the labor force. The results indicate that greater policy support for equality reduces and may even reverse the relative divorce risk associated with a wife's employment." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))