Zitatform

Acero, Isabel & Nuria Alcalde (2026): Gender pay gap among non-executive directors in Spanish boards. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 58, H. 24, S. 4667-4679. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2025.2499209

Abstract

"This study focuses on the existence or not of a gender pay gap (GPG) among non-executive directors (NEDs) in Spanish boards. For this purpose, we used a sample covering 4,018 positions/year for NEDs in 57 Spanish listed firms over a 10-year period (2013–2022). The results obtained suggest that, controlling for individual characteristics of the directors, the type of position held as well as the features of the company and its corporate governance system, female NEDs receive approximately 11% less remuneration than their male counterparts. Therefore, our findings do not support the idea that female directors are a scarce resource that firms compete for and reward. The results also highlight the need to differentiate by categories of directors when analysing the GPG in the board. In fact, we find that the GPG is higher for proprietary directors (around 18%) than for independent directors (around 6%). In terms of practical implications, our results may be of interest to policy-makers who are considering gender equity policies to break the glass ceiling." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Andersen, Kate (2026): Social Security, Gender and Class: The impacts of the Universal Credit Conditionality Regime on Unpaid Care and Paid Work. In: Social Policy and Society, Jg. 25, H. 1, S. 44-59. DOI:10.1017/S1474746424000071

Abstract

"The introduction of Universal Credit, a new means-tested benefit for working-aged people in the UK, entails a significant expansion of welfare conditionality. Due to mothers’ disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care, women are particularly affected by the new conditionality regime for parents who have the primary responsibility for the care of dependent children. This article draws upon qualitative longitudinal research with twenty-four mothers subject to the new conditionality regime to analyze the gendered impacts of this new policy and whether there is variation in experiences according to social class. The analysis demonstrates that the new conditionality regime devalues unpaid care and is of limited efficacy in improving sustained moves into paid work. It also shows that the negative gendered impacts of the conditionality within Universal Credit are at times exacerbated for working-class mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bairoh, Susanna, Satu Pyöriä & Niklas Mäkinen (2026): Disaggregating Gender Income Disparities in STEM: Cohort and Family Factors in a Nordic Welfare State. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 113-134. DOI:10.1177/09500170251366157

Abstract

"The article examines the income trajectories of women and men in STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) in Finland, a country within the Nordic labour market context that strives for gender equality. The study uses total population register data from Finnish STEM degree holders with at least a bachelor’s degree, aged 30–40 years, selecting cohorts born in 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975 and 1980 (N = 31,865). This study estimates how cohort, becoming a parent, and co-residing with a spouse affect income trajectories for women and men. The findings reveal persistent gender income disparities across cohorts, with economic turbulence potentially widening the differences. The results support the motherhood penalty and, unexpectedly, address a ‘living-alone penalty’ for men. Even with a design examining STEM graduates at the same career stage, gender differences remain significant and are not alleviated by the Nordic welfare state context." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Barbieri, Teresa, Michele Bavaro & Valeria Cirillo (2026): Falling behind unequally: labour market outcomes of Italian couples after childbirth*. In: Applied Economics, S. 1-20. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2026.2624051

Abstract

"This study explores how childbirth differently shapes the career trajectories of men and women within the same couples, with a particular focus on gender disparities in experiencing downward labour transitions following the birth of their first child. Using a unique survey-administrative linked dataset, we track couples’ labour market trajectories to analyse transitions from employment to unemployment, full-time to part-time employment, and higher-paid to lower-paid jobs. Additionally, the dataset allows to link partners, enabling the study of factors influencing differences in the probabilities of downward labour market transitions between partners in the same household. Our findings reveal substantial and persistent penalties for women, lasting up to three years after childbirth, which are mainly related to part-time job arrangements. When examining differences in probabilities within couples, households in which women have tertiary education with respect to their partners and are the primary earners exhibit smaller gender disparities in the likelihood of downward labour transitions with respect to other households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Bibler, Andrew J. (2026): Labor supply responses to tax credit disbursements: Evidence from the EITC schedule. In: Economic Inquiry, Jg. 64, H. 2, S. 555-573. DOI:10.1111/ecin.70040

Abstract

"The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) schedule and lump-sum disbursement can create significant labor supply responses. I estimate labor supply responses to tax credit disbursements using a regression kink design. Among single workers, credits increase labor supply around the time that tax credits are disbursed at the first and second kinks in the EITC schedule but reduce labor supply on the intensive margin at the third kink. There is some evidence of heterogeneous responses among married women, including an increase in labor supply near the third kink, although findings in the sample of married women appear less robust." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

Zitatform

Brega, Carla, Mara A. Yerkes & Marc Grau-Grau (2026): Fathers Combining Work and Care: Flexible Work Arrangements and Paternal Involvement Across Financial Situations. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 2, S. 225-249. DOI:10.1177/09500170251386322

Abstract

"Flexible work arrangements significantly impact childcare divisions among dual-earner parents, yet few studies address their impact on fathers as primary caregivers. This article explores the relationship between fathers’ ability to work flexibly and their share of childcare responsibility across financial situations. A capabilities perspective is applied to better understand why fathers’ childcare aspirations may not align with what they are capable of in practice. Using 2021 survey data on fathers (n = 493) and mothers (n = 472) of young children in different-sex partnerships from four European countries, multinomial logistic regressions are estimated to predict childcare responsibility. Findings suggest fathers’ spatial flexibility (working from home) increases their likelihood of being the person primarily responsible for childcare, whereas temporal flexibility (varying the start/end times of the working day) does not. Economic conditions influence these dynamics, with financially strained fathers benefiting most from spatial flexibility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Brega, Carla (2026): Flexible Work Arrangements and Occupational Class: Fathers Navigating Childcare Responsibilities. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 33, H. 3, S. 1053-1064. DOI:10.1111/gwao.70111

Abstract

"When using flexible work arrangements for caregiving, fathers risk deviating from both social expectations of breadwinning and ideal worker standards, yet implications of this divergence across different occupational classes remain unclear. Using 40 semi-structured interviews with fathers from the Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, and the UK, this study explores and compares the negotiated use of flexible working arrangements (FWAs) for care among managerial-professional fathers and fathers in routine white-collar and blue-collar occupations. Employing abductive analysis within a constructivist grounded theory framework, the article delves into how fathers from different work-related backgrounds navigate the tension between their paid work (in)flexibility and their childcare involvement. Results show evidence of occupational-class differences in two key areas: Varying degrees of access to and use of FWAs for care; and navigating work and family dedication, including how fathers deal with competing commitments and what using flexibility implies for the tension between expectations of being both involved fathers and dedicated workers. At a higher level of abstraction, these contribute to theorization of a class-based double bind of fatherhood and flexibility, providing a much-needed view of how working fathers navigate the complexities of (gendered) organizational structures. Finally, implications are discussed, including organizational support addressing occupational-class barriers to FWAs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Brugarolas, Pablo (2026): Early Childhood Education and Care and mother's labor supply: The role of publication and weak causal design biases. In: Review of Economics of the Household, S. 1-37. DOI:10.1007/s11150-026-09847-z

Abstract

"This paper conducts a meta-analysis of causal studies examining the impact of Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) programs on maternal employment in developed countries. Using 981 effect-size estimates from 35 studies, I harmonize employment outcomes into percentage-point changes and assemble 70 study-level characteristics describing program design, subgroups, contexts, and empirical strategies. I apply a battery of linear and non-linear publication-bias tests and use model-averaging methods to account jointly for publication bias and what I term weak design bias, defined by whether studies satisfy core identification diagnostics for RDD, IV, RCT, and DiD designs. Publication bias is modest but non-negligible: correcting only for selective reporting reduces the descriptive mean effect of around 5 percentage points (p.p.) to roughly 1 p.p., yielding insignificant implied intention-to-treat (ITT) effects and average treatment-on-the-treated (ATT) effects of about 4 p.p. Once I also reweight the literature toward designs that meet identification checks, the implied ITT effect rises to about 8 p.p., and the implied ATT effect stabilizes around 10 p.p. The corrected ATT effects are particularly pronounced for child care programs, delivered by public providers, and implemented in high-employment settings. Overall, the results suggest that modern ECEC expansions generate sizeable employment gains for already attached mothers facing binding care constraints. They also provide bias-corrected benchmarks for evaluating ECEC reforms and their contribution to mitigating child penalties and gender gaps in labour-market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Cairo, Sofie, Ria Ivandić, Anne Sophie Lassen & Valentina Tartari (2026): Parenthood and the Career Ladder: Evidence from Academia. (Discussion paper / Berlin School of Economics 0092), Berlin, 35 S., App. DOI:10.48462/opus4-6164

Abstract

"Persistent gender gaps in the labor market are largely driven by the underrepresentation of women at the top of most professions. We study how parenthood shapes gender gaps in academic careers using population-wide administrative and survey data linked to productivity and promotion records. Parenthood marks a sharp divergence in academic careers: one in three women exit academia following motherhood. Men also experience a decline in academic employment after fatherhood, but the effects are substantially smaller. For mothers, childbirth leads to a persistent decline in both tenure attainment and research output, while men's trajectories on these margins are unaffected by parenthood. The child penalty on tenure is driven primarily by women's higher exit rates from academia. Gender differences in career aspirations do not explain these findings; instead, childcare and mobility constraints play a central role. Child penalties are exacerbated in highly competitive environments and environments without senior female role models." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Carvalho, Cristiano C. & Trine E. Vattø (2026): Does Tax Transparency Influence Wage Setting?. Evidence on Gender Gaps. (Discussion papers / Statistics Norway, Research Department 1033), Oslo, 49 S.

Abstract

"This paper examines how an often-overlooked source of pay transparency—the public disclosure of tax information—affects gender wage gaps. We exploit a 2001 change in Norway that made individual tax returns searchable online. Using matched employer–employee data and a difference in-differences design, we find that within-firm gender wage gaps fell by 2.2 percentage points (8.7 percent), driven by rising female wages. Effects are strongest in private-sector firms, industries with initially larger gaps, and municipalities that previously lacked easy access to printed tax lists. Wage gains are concentrated among job-changing women, suggesting that broad-based transparency mainly operates through improved information for job search." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Chalermsook, Porjai, Pekka Ilmakunnas & Rudiger von Arnim (2026): Exports, Gender Inequality, and Family Commitment. In: Labour, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 74-100. DOI:10.1111/labr.70007

Abstract

"This paper examines how exporting firms, gender, and family commitments interact to shape wage disparities. Using Finnish matched employer–employee data, we estimate wage equations that control for firm, worker, and match-specific unobservables. While exporting firms do not exhibit a wider gender wage gap overall, women with young children face additional short-run wage penalties, as shown by an event-study analysis that reveals a temporary but pronounced gap in the early post-childbirth years. These penalties are concentrated in occupations with greater temporal rigidity and limited scheduling flexibility, highlighting workplace flexibility constraints as a key mechanism. The findings suggest that the interaction between export-related temporal demands and caregiving responsibilities contributes to gendered wage dynamics. These results also raise questions about the continuing relevance of gender norms that disadvantage female employees, even in a context with strong public support for parental leave and childcare in Finland." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

Zitatform

Coskun, Sena, Husnu Dalgic & Yasemin Özdemir (2026): Navigating Motherhood: Endogenous Penalties and Career Choice. (IAB-Discussion Paper 02/2026), Nürnberg, 57 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2602

Abstract

"Wir dokumentieren, dass Frauen sich vor der Geburt ihres ersten Kindes strategisch in „familienfreundliche” Sektoren sortieren, die durch geringere Erfahrungswerte, aber niedrigere Einbußen pro Kind gekennzeichnet sind. Dieses antizipatorische Sortieren stellt ex-ante Kosten der Mutterschaft dar, die von herkömmlichen Maßen für die Child Penalty gänzlich übersehen werden. Wir entwickeln ein Modell heterogener Akteure für Berufswahl und Fertilität, um diese „Sorting Penalty” zu quantifizieren. Unser zentrales Ergebnis ist, dass der direkte Einkommensverlust durch berufliches Sortieren zwar gering ist, dieses Resultat jedoch die hohe Wirksamkeit der primären Instrumente offenbart, mit denen Frauen Mutterschaft bewältigen: die Qualität-Quantität (Q-Q) und Zeitverwendung (T-E) Trade-offs. Durch empirische Evidenz für beide Spielräume zeigen wir, dass Frauen keine passiven Subjekte von Child Penalties sind; sie sind aktive, strategische Akteurinnen, die diese feineren Abwägungen nutzen, um familiäre Ziele zu erreichen und gleichzeitig berufliche Kosten zu mildern. Unsere Ergebnisse unterstreichen: Da Fertilität und Benachteiligungen zutiefst endogen sind, werden politische Rahmenbedingungen, die diese Trade-offs ausschließen, die Fertilitätsreaktionen und Karrierekosten von Interventionen grundlegend falsch berechnen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Costa-Ramón, Ana, Michaela Slotwinski, Ursina Schaede & Anne Ardila Brenøe (2026): (Not) Thinking About the Future: Financial Information and Maternal Labor Supply. In: The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Jg. 141, H. 2, S. 1335-1382. DOI:10.1093/qje/qjag003

Abstract

"Does information about the long-run financial costs of reduced labor supply increase mothers ’ working hours? We document descriptively that long-term financial factors are not top of mind when mothers decide on their employment level. Moreover, a substantial share of women holds overly optimistic expectations about pension receipt and wage growth under part-time work. In a large-scale field experiment in Switzerland, we randomly assign mothers working part-time as teachers to receive objective information about the long-run costs of reduced labor supply. The treatment increases both demand for financial information and future labor supply plans, in particular among women who underestimate the costs of part-time work. Leveraging linked employer administrative data one year post-intervention, we find that this group of mothers increases working hours by 7 percent. These findings underscore that policies reducing information frictions in labor supply decisions may help address remaining gender gaps in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Cruz, João, Amélia Bastos, Sara Falcão Casaca & Isabel Proença (2026): Gender pay gap trends across STEM fields: an empirical analysis. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 46, H. 3-4, S. 426-447. DOI:10.1108/ijssp-02-2025-0090

Abstract

"Purpose: This paper analyses the gender pay gap (GPG) in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) in Portugal over the past decade, utilising official national earnings data. Design/methodology/approach: A decomposition method is applied to estimate the explained and unexplained components of the GPG both at the mean and across the distribution quartiles of national earnings. This methodology can also be applied to other sectors or countries, providing robust statistical and econometric results relating to the GPG. Findings: The results show that the GPG varies heterogeneously across STEM fields. In occupations relating to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), which are included in STEM, the GPG has been widening in recent years, in contrast to the overall trend in the labour force. Originality/value: The GPG in STEM is under-researched, with existing literature indicating a structural gap in these occupations. Understanding this GPG is essential for its reduction and for maximising human capital, which is vital for social and economic growth. This article aims to contribute to the discussion on this topic and offers potential policy recommendations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

Zitatform

Cui, Sizhan, Zhuofei Lu & Senhu Wang (2026): Gender and Parenthood Differences in Work Time Fragmentation in the United States: The Moderating Role of Occupational Class. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 182, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11205-026-03815-x

Abstract

"Work time fragmentation refers to the number of distinct work episodes in a day, indicating disruptions in work schedules and the degree of workday fragmentation. With the expansion of flexible labor markets in the U.S., work time fragmentation has become more prevalent. Although gender and parenthood differences in labor market outcomes and family responsibilities are well studied, their manifestation in work time fragmentation remains underexplored. Using data from the American Time Use Survey 2003–2023 and OLS regression models, this study is the first to examine gender and parenthood differences in work time fragmentation and their variation by occupational class. Findings indicate that women experience greater fragmentation than men. For women, those with dependent children, particularly those with young children, show greater fragmentation than women without coresidential children. This pattern is most pronounced among those in higher occupational classes. For men, there is no evidence showing that there is a difference in work time fragmentation intensity by parenthood status or occupational class. The findings underscore the importance of equitable parental leave, shared caregiving responsibilities, and supportive workplace structures in addressing these dynamics and promoting equity in work-family relationships." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Deming, Sarah M. (2026): Antecedents of Motherhood Penalties: The Work-Care Preferences of Socioeconomically Diverse Expectant Mothers. In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 47, H. 1, S. 74-94. DOI:10.1007/s10834-025-10071-7

Abstract

"This study contributes to the work-family literature in three ways. First, it challenges the emphasis on the economic impacts of motherhood by introducing a framework—Work-Care Preferences (WCP)—that acknowledges how women’s personal orientations to paid work and to motherhood converge to create varied preferences for how (or whether) to best combine the two. Second, documenting how women’s WCPs are influenced by socioeconomic status illuminates a previously unidentified mechanism by which motherhood penalties are unequally experienced. Lastly, by highlighting how expectant mothers’ personal conceptions of paid work influence their subsequent WCPs, it offers opportunities to design workplace and policy-level interventions to support maternal employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Zitatform

Denderski, Piotr & Tim Obermeier (2026): Household taxation, nonlinear occupations, and gender gaps. (CEP discussion paper / Centre for Economic Performance 2140), London, 23 S., App.

Abstract

"An enduring source of gender inequality is that some high-paying ("nonlinear") occupations penalize balancing work and household time commitments, as emphasized by Goldin (2014). We ask how household taxation interacts with these occupational differences to shape gender gaps in hours, wages, and occupational choice, and whether these differences materially affect the impact of tax reforms. We address these questions in a structural Roy model of household labor supply with occupation-specific earnings-hours nonlinearities and progressive taxation, calibrated to US data. We find that a balanced-budget switch to separately filed progressive taxes significantly reduces the gender gaps in hours and occupational choice, while the wage gap declines more modestly. These improvements arise because the reform lowers marginal tax rates for secondary earners and raises them for primary earners. By contrast, proportional taxation yields much smaller reductions in gender gaps. In both reforms, the standard labor-supply channel accounts for roughly two-thirds of the overall taxable- income response, while the convex earnings-hours relationship amplifies these effects and explains most of the remainder. Occupational switching contributes little because those who do switch are negatively selected." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Echeverría, Lucía, J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal & José Alberto Molina (2026): Commuting in dual-earner households: international gender differences with time use surveys. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 24, H. 1, S. 303-325. DOI:10.1007/s11150-024-09726-5

Abstract

"Prior studies show men commute longer than women, often due to household responsibilities. However, research on commuting differences within couples is limited. This study examines gender gaps in commuting times and mode choices among dual-earner couples in Spain, Italy, South Korea, and the UK. Using Ordinary Least Squares regressions, we find that the presence of children significantly increases gender gaps in commuting times in Italy and the UK, supporting the household responsibility hypothesis. Conversely, no significant link between children and gender gaps is observed in Spain and Korea. Additionally, children’s presence affects commuting mode choices in Italy across all modes, and in Korea for public transit only, with Italian women showing the most changes in commuting mode when children are present." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

Zitatform

Emery, Tom (2026): Inequalities in early childcare strategies: Evidence from Dutch administrative data. In: Advances in life course research, Jg. 67. DOI:10.1016/j.alcr.2026.100727

Abstract

"This study examines whether the well-documented socioeconomic gradient in formal childcare use is reflected in the timing, sequencing, and stability of childcare and employment strategies following the critical life course transition to parenthood. While higher-SES parents are consistently more likely to use formal childcare, the reasons for this disparity remain poorly understood principally due to data limitations and the complexity of household dynamics. Drawing on linked Dutch administrative data (2010–2019), we use multichannel sequence analysis to identify distinct “childcare strategies” across the first four years of children’s lives, capturing monthly trajectories of formal childcare use and parental employment. A subsequent multinomial regression models the association between these strategies and socioeconomic status. The results reveal wide variation in the stability, intensity, and timing of formal childcare use, closely intertwined with maternal employment patterns. Children from lower-SES households are more likely to experience complex, fragmented, and fragile childcare trajectories—characterized by delayed entry, irregular usage, and lower alignment with stable employment—confirming and extending findings from prior qualitative research. By quantifying these patterns across a full population cohort, the study demonstrates how childcare complexity itself reflects and reinforces broader social inequalities. We conclude that childcare policies must move beyond affordability to address accessibility, stability, and administrative complexity—particularly for parents with low incomes, precarious jobs, or self-employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

Zitatform

Filser, Andreas, Pascal Achard, Inga Marie Amend, Corinna Frodermann, Ida Gaede & Sander Wagner (2026): Harmonising French and German administrative DADS-EDP and SIAB data. A practical guide on how to create comparable data sets on maternal employment. In: Journal for labour market research, Jg. 60, H. 1, 2026-05-08. DOI:10.1186/s12651-026-00430-8

Abstract

"Administrative data are increasingly used in social science research, including for studying the labour market consequences of motherhood. Yet despite the growing use of such data within countries, cross-national comparative research remains limited because administrative data require substantial harmonisation before meaningful comparisons are possible. In this paper, we harmonise two rich administrative data sets suitable for comparative research on maternal employment: the French DADS-EDP and the German SIAB. France and Germany present a compelling case for such comparisons given their differing norms and policies regarding childcare and maternal employment. We document our harmonisation decisions on data structure, sample selection, employment measurement, and key socio-economic variables, and provide the full Stata code as supplementary material. We illustrate the potential of the harmonised data by examining how maternal employment trajectories evolve over time in France, West Germany, and East Germany. The analysis reveals substantial cross-national and temporal variation in employment trajectories after childbirth, highlighting the value of harmonised administrative data for comparative research on maternal employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Filser, Andreas, Pascal Achard, Corinna Frodermann, Dana Müller & Sander Wagner (2026): Stratification of post-birth labour supply in a high- and low- maternal employment regime. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 102, 2026-01-30. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2026.101133

Abstract

"This paper compares the magnitude and stratification of motherhood employment penalties in France and Germany, two countries with contrasting institutional orientations towards maternal employment. While prior research has documented cross-national variation in the size of motherhood penalties, less is known about how macro-level contexts shape their stratification across socioeconomic groups. Using harmonized administrative employment data on 18,948 French and 72,632 German mothers, who were employed prior to first birth between 1997 and 2014, we estimate labour market participation trajectories for five years following childbirth. Across both countries, women with higher pre-birth income, higher education, and employment in higher-wage firms experience substantially smaller reductions in labour supply, with income emerging as the strongest stratifying dimension. Motherhood penalties are markedly smaller in France, amounting to less than one-third of the reduction observed in Germany. Yet penalties in France are more strongly stratified: mothers in the lowest income quintile experience participation losses 3.14 times larger than mothers in the highest quintile, compared to a ratio of 1.17 in Germany. Within Germany, East German mothers face smaller but more stratified penalties than West German mothers. Finally, we test whether the macro-level pattern of larger penalties associated with weaker stratification also generalizes to 65 NUTS-2 regions. We find no systematic association between the size and stratification of motherhood penalties at the regional level. The findings suggest that institutional contexts supporting high maternal employment reduce overall penalties but pose particular challenges for mothers from lower socio-economic backgrounds who reintegrate less rapidly into the labour market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

Zitatform

Fortes de Lena, Fernanda & Diederik Boertien (2026): A Marriage Premium for Whom? Sexual Identity, Relationship Status and Earnings. In: Journal of Marriage and Family, Jg. 88, H. 1, S. 81-99. DOI:10.1111/jomf.70005

Abstract

"Objective: This article aims to understand how relationship status is associated with earnings among LGB people. Background: Previous research has found that marriage is related to higher earnings for men and lower earnings for women, but has not often considered whether this holds across different sexual identities. Method: We use the longitudinal Understanding Society data from the UK to show how the earnings of LGB individuals are associated with relationship status (single, non-residential partner, residential partner, married). Results: Cohabiting or married men generally earn more compared to single men, regardless of sexual identity. However, gay men's earnings only increase after marrying, whereas heterosexual and bisexual men's earnings increase after entering any co-residential relationship. This suggests that gay men might receive more social support or employer approval after entering a normative relationship form. Heterosexual women start earning less after marriage, whereas the impact of changes in relationship status on earnings is relatively small and non-significant for bisexual and lesbian women. These results are largely explained by paid and unpaid work hours, suggesting that the division of labor within relationships lowers earnings among heterosexual women but not among LGB women. Conclusion: LGB women's earnings depend relatively little on changes in relationship status. At the same time, gay men only receive premiums related to having a partner once they marry." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Gasior, Katrin, Silvia Avram & Daria Popova (2026): Invisible gaps: Women’s individual poverty risks and the gendered failings of the adult worker model. In: Economic Systems, Jg. 50, H. 2. DOI:10.1016/j.ecosys.2025.101363

Abstract

"Since the early 2000s, welfare states in Europe have shifted their primary focus from providing social protection against labour market risks to the activation of all individuals into employment. As a way to limit poverty risks, this strategy ignores the ‘care penalties’ many women face in the labour market. Official poverty statistics ignore intrahousehold inequalities in resource allocation, thereby possibly overestimating the economic resources of women. This study contributes to the literature on the gendered consequences of welfare policies by estimating poverty risks for men and women using individualised incomes and assessing the extent to which observed gender gaps in poverty risk can be linked to the adult worker model. Additionally, the role played by taxes and social transfers in mitigating the gender gap in individual poverty risk is examined. Results show that only around one third of women in Europe fit the standard full-time, year-round employment model. Inactive and unemployed women have particularly high individual poverty risks, but even women who work fulltime and are continuously employed are more prone to poverty than men, highlighting the role of gender pay gaps. Social transfers cushion some of the gendered gap in poverty risk, while direct taxes and social insurance contributions have a disequalizing effect at the bottom of income distribution, especially for workers in atypical employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

Zitatform

Gibbs, Chloe, Esra Kose & Maria Rosales-Rueda (2026): More Hours, More Work: Head Start Expansions Boost Maternal Employment. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 34831), Cambridge, Mass, 35 S.

Abstract

"Women's employment remains highly sensitive to childcare constraints, making childcare availability a critical lever for supporting mothers' labor force attachment. We study the effects of expanded full-day programming in Head Start, using the 2016 federal funding initiative that targeted grantees with low full-day enrollment. Linking administrative program data, geo-coded center locations, and household data on employment, we estimate a difference-in-differences design by comparing mothers of young children in treated and untreated areas. The policy increased full-day enrollment by 19 percent and raised single mothers' employment (1.9%), hours (2.5%), and earnings (6.5%). Results show that extending program duration meaningfully improves maternal labor market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

González, Libertad, Sergi Jiménez-Martín, Natalia Nollenberger & Judit Vall Castello (2026): The Effect of Access to Legal Abortion on Fertility, Marriage, and Long-term Outcomes for Women. In: The Economic Journal, Jg. 136, H. 674, S. 440-467. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueaf054

Abstract

"We evaluate the short- and long-term effects for women of access to legal, subsidized abortion. We find evidence that the legalization of abortion in Spain in 1985 led to an immediate decrease in births, more pronounced for younger women in provinces with a higher supply of abortion services. Affected women were more likely to graduate from high school, less likely to marry young, less likely to divorce in the long-term, and reported higher life satisfaction as adults. We find at most small reductions in completed fertility, while we do not find meaningful effects on labour market outcomes in the long run." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Gupta, Renu, Gill Kirton & Suki Sian (2026): Temporal Signification of Careers and Organizational Return‐to‐Work Barriers After an Extended Career Break: Insights From Professional Women in the United Kingdom. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 33, H. 2, S. 412-428. DOI:10.1111/gwao.70050

Abstract

"In this article, we explore the phenomenon of professional women's childcare-related extended career breaks taken immediately or soon after maternity leave and organizational barriers experienced in their subsequent return to work. Applying a temporal lens to Barley's career model, we analyze how organizational objective clock-time and women's experience of subjective time in relation to extended career breaks mediate their understanding of organizational barriers in returning to work. Demonstrating the interlinkages between structure and agency, we present “continuity” and “presence” as two temporal career scripts that create specific return-to-work barriers for women professionals as they fall out of sync with time during the extended break and face temporal inequities upon return to the workplace. We establish that in the context of women professionals returning from childcare-related extended career breaks, structural elements outweigh individual agency. We conclude this article with a call for organizational support to overcome return barriers arising out of temporal career scripts. We also suggest that future research could usefully explore organizational policies and practices aimed at reintegrating and retaining professional women returning to work from extended childcare-related career breaks." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Haas, Linda & C. Philip Hwang (2026): Fathers use of extended parental leave: exploring company barriers in Sweden. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 29, H. 3, S. 386-407. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2024.2411026

Abstract

"In Sweden, men's parental leave rights are considered important for realizing gender equality. Men have the same compensated leave rights as women: three months each of nontransferable and transferable leave. Nevertheless, less than 20% of couples share leave equally (each taking 40% or more of all leave days). Understanding the circumstances under which fathers take leave beyond nontransferable months is important if equality is to be realized, yet few studies investigate this. Our survey of human resource directors in Sweden's top companies revealed extended leave use was not normative for fathers’ and especially male top managers and aspects of the gendered culture and structure of work organizations were associated with less extended leave use. Company awareness of parental leaves benefits for the company was significantly and independently related to fathers’ and top male managers extended leave use. Positive workplace attitudes and less job specialization increased fathers’ extended leave use. Companies’ setting fewer conditions encouraged more top male managers to take extended leave, as did a policy of managerial training to facilitate fathers’ leaves. Greater understanding of company barriers to fathers’ extended parental leave use may encourage companiesto remove those barriers which can increase fathers’ use of extended parental leave." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Hieda, Takeshi (2026): Beyond left and right: Socio-cultural determinants of parenting leave policy in advanced democracies. In: Journal of European Social Policy. DOI:10.1177/09589287251410874

Abstract

"This study examines the political determinants of parenting leave policy across 21 OECD countries from 1970 to 2021. While prior research has linked parenting leave expansion to social democratic and Christian democratic governments, this paper argues that party positions in the two-dimensional ideological space—socio-economic left–right and socio-cultural libertarian–authoritarian—better explain policy preferences. Using mixed-effects ordered logit models, the analysis reveals that socio-cultural rather than socio-economic positions drive parenting leave expansion. Governments with libertarian socio-cultural orientations are more likely to extend paid maternity, paternity, and parental leave for both mothers and fathers. These findings remain robust even when controlling for party family, indicating that the influence of Christian democratic and social democratic governments stems from their shifts towards libertarian positions. The study provides new insights into the partisan determinants of parenting leave policy, highlighting the role of socio-cultural competition in shaping welfare state transformations in post-industrial democracies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Johnson, Katherine M. & Christina McCarthy (2026): The leave gap: actual versus optimal maternity leave in a sample of US breastfeeding women. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 29, H. 1, S. 43-50. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2024.2339318

Abstract

"Access to quality parental leave is a prominent US work-family issue and crucial for supporting maternal and child health, including breastfeeding outcomes. This is even more salient given the recently updated US public health recommendation to breastfeed for up to two-plus years. Yet little prior research on work-breastfeeding conflict, has addressed breastfeeding women's perceptions of maternity leave. How much leave do breastfeeding women want relative to what they receive? What shapes their optimal leave perceptions? Using in-depth interview data, we first examined the leave gap between optimal and actual leave duration. Most interviewees reported a leave deficit, averaging 20 weeks. We then examined perceptions of optimal leave - identifying four themes: (1) making comparisons, (2) role transition and adjustment, (3) the developing child, and (4) return-readiness. Overall, we argue that it is important to consider ideal leave and the leave gap, which may produce further strain for breastfeeding employees." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Kelly, Elaine & Isabel Stockton (2026): A senior doctor like me: Gender match and occupational choice. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 99. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2026.102863

Abstract

"Men and women consistently sort into different occupations and fields within occupations, contributing to persistent gender inequality in economic outcomes. In this paper, we examine how social factors influence this sorting, specifically the gender composition of supervisors early in one’s career. Our setting is the English National Health Service, where medical specialties vary widely in their gender composition. We exploit features of the doctor training pathway that generate quasi-random variation in junior doctors’ exposure to senior women. We find greater exposure to senior women specialists increases the probability of junior women subsequently training in their specialty, but only in very male-dominated training placements. A junior woman exposed to a 10 percentage point higher share of senior women specialists during a placement is 1.7 percentage points or 24% more likely to pursue training in the placement specialty, if the share of senior women doctors is below one in five. This effect corresponds to two-fifths of the gender gap in training choices, and appears even in specialties that are not particularly male-dominated as a whole. Heterogeneity analyses suggest that access to and relatability of potential role models matter, and that gender match effects interact with preferences for geographic and schedule flexibility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, ©2026 Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

Zitatform

Khaliliaraghi, Negar, Petter Lundborg & Johan Vikström (2026): Gender Gaps Under Comparable Tasks: Evidence from Quasi-Random Assignment. (CESifo working paper 12413), München, 57 S.

Abstract

"Gender gaps in earnings persist even among high-skilled workers, partly because men and women often perform different tasks within and across jobs. We study a rare setting in which high-skilled men and women perform the same tasks under comparable conditions, allowing us to assess gender differences in productivity and pay without confounding from task or client allocation. Using administrative data from the Swedish Public Employment Service between 2003 and 2014, we exploit a rotation scheme that quasi-randomly assigns job seekers to employment caseworkers. This ensures male and female caseworkers are matched with comparable clients. We find productivity differences are small: job seekers assigned to female and male caseworkers exit unemployment at similar rates, with no evidence of job-quality differences. Consistent with this, hourly wages—conditional on productivity—are nearly identical across genders. Despite this, female caseworkers earn about 8 percent less per year, due to differences in contracted and actual hours worked. We also find suggestive evidence that male caseworkers are more likely to be promoted than equally productive female colleagues. Overall, when tasks are standardized and performance is measured objectively, gender differences in productivity and hourly pay are minimal, while gaps in annual earnings and career progression persist." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Krafft, Caroline & Maye Ehab (2026): Employment Conditions in the Paid Care Economy in Egypt:: Improvement or Deterioration? In: Journal for labour market research, Jg. 60, H. 1, 2026-03-14. DOI:10.1186/s12651-026-00426-4

Abstract

"This paper examines the evolution of the paid care economy in Egypt, over 2009-21, assessing trends in employment and employment conditions. The analyses demonstrate that, despite goals to grow the paid care economy, paid care employment has shrunk over time in Egypt, driven by the retreat of the public sector. Furthermore, employment conditions in care employment have worsened over time, in part due to the increasing privatization of care employment. The informal share of care employment (without social insurance coverage) has increased over time. While initially there was not a care pay gap, one has formed over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer) ((en))

Zitatform

Kulik, Liat (2026): Does the marital pay gap matter? Women’s family-work experiences by earning pattern and ethnic community. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 29, H. 3, S. 345-364. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2024.2398584

Abstract

"This study explored variations in women’s experiences within the family-work system by different earning patterns: where men outearn women, both spouses earn equally, or women outearn men. This examination was conducted in three major ethnic communities in Israel: Jews in the general population, ultraOrthodox Jews, and Arabs. The analysis focused on three dimensions of the family-work system: behavioral (perceived family and work time), cognitive (assessment of family-work conflict), and affective (marital satisfaction). In all three communities, women who outearned their spouses tended to dedicate more hours to paid work and less to family and household responsibilities. However, based on women’s perceptions, men allocated the same number of hours to family responsibilities, irrespective of their ethnicity or earning patterns. In the Arab community, women earning the same or more than their spouses experienced heightened work-family conflict compared to those with different earning patterns in their community. Finally, ultra-Orthodox women reported the highest levels of marital satisfaction, regardless of earning pattern. Based on these findings, organizations should be encouraged to implement family-friendly policies to support women, especially in traditional communities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Laroche, Patrice, Alex Bryson, Heather Joshi & David Wilkinson (2026): The Gender Wage Gap in Britain: A Meta-Analysis. (RF Berlin - CReAM Discussion Paper Series 2026,86), Berlin, 49 S.

Abstract

"Ours is the first meta-analysis synthesizing results from econometric studies carried out in the UK to assess the size of the gender wage gap (GWG). Drawing on 90 primary studies published between 1974 and 2024 we assess trends in the gap and identify the substantive and methodological factors that explain variance in results across studies. Expressed relative to men's earnings, the raw GWG averages 25 log points but falls to 13 log points when adjusting for covariates. There has been convergence in the mean wages of men and women at a rate of about 0.3 percentage points per annum, most of which reflects change in the characteristics of workers and their treatment in the labour market rather than differences over time in study characteristics. There is substantial heterogeneity in the size of the GWG by year of observation, worker type and research design, although differences in the size of adjusted GWG by study design are not as large as most economists might imagine." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Lavest, Chloé, Lucas G. Drouhot, Meta van der Linden & Frank van Tubergen (2026): Beyond the ‘integration paradox’: educational attainment similarly predicts gender discrimination among women and ethnic discrimination among minorities. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 42, H. 1, S. 103-117. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcaf039

Abstract

"Highly educated individuals of immigrant origins perceive more ethnic discrimination than their less educated counterparts—a now well-established finding referred to as the ‘integration paradox’. In this paper, we study whether this purported paradox captures general educational effects on the lived experiences of historically disadvantaged populations going beyond the scope of integration among immigrants. We compare the educational gradient of perceptions of ethno-racial discrimination among ethnic minorities with the educational gradient of perceptions of gender discrimination among women. We also study intersectional dimensions in the experiences of minority women and those reporting multiple grounds for discrimination. Analyses based on representative data from two cross-sectional surveys in France - Trajectoires et Origines 1 and 2—involving over 35,000 respondents show that highly educated individuals, including both ethnic minorities and women, are more likely to report discrimination. Individuals who report discrimination on one ground are also more likely to report it on another ground. Our results suggest that the so-called integration paradox reflects more general educational effects on subjective experiences of exclusion that are not unique to immigrant-origin populations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Liu, Andrew Yizhou (2026): Paid family leave and occupational mobility. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 58, H. 34, S. 6958-6969. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2025.2526858

Abstract

"Paid family leave (PFL) programmes provide temporary financial support and workplace flexibility for mothers, potentially influencing their occupational choices after childbirth. I find that state-level PFL programs reduce downward occupational mobility among women aged 19 to 35 with children aged 0 to 3 by approximately 42%, with stronger effects among high-school educated, black, and single mothers. However, these policies have no significant impact on upward occupational mobility, indicating that PFL alone may be insufficient for reducing the gender gap in occupation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Maralani, Vida, Camille Portier & Berkay Özcan (2026): Early Childhood Investments and Women’s Work Outcomes across the Life Course. In: Sociological Science, Jg. 13, S. 214-241. DOI:10.15195/v13.a9

Zitatform

Marchingiglio, Riccardo & Michael Poyker (2026): The Economics of Gender-Specific Minimum Wage Legislation. In: Journal of labor economics, Jg. 44, H. 3, S. 1009-1063. DOI:10.1086/733493

Abstract

"Using full count U.S. census data, we study the impact of early 20th-century state-industry-specific minimum wage laws that primarily targeted female employees. Our triple-difference estimates suggest a null impact of the minimum wage laws, potentially reflecting disemployment effects and the positive selection bias of the workers remaining in the labor force. When comparing county-industry Trends between counties straddling state borders, female employment is lower by around 3.1% in affected county-industry cells. We further investigate the implications for own-wage elasticity of labor demand as afunction of cross-industry concentration, the channels of substitution between men and women, and heterogeneity by marital status." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Michelmore, Katherine & Natasha Pilkauskas (2026): More than just work: The effect of the Earned Income Tax Credit on job quality. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 99. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2026.102867

Abstract

"Using a simulated benefits approach and data from the Current Population Survey we examine how expansions to the EITC affected the job quality of unmarried mothers in the U.S. Following expansions to the EITC, we find increases in employment, wages, and fringe benefits such as employer-provided health insurance and retirement plans among unmarried mothers, all indicators of improvements in job quality. On the other hand, we also find evidence that the EITC increases overwork, or working >45 h per week, a negative indicator of job quality. Though mothers are not moved into high-quality professional jobs, they are more likely to work in manual labour and transportation occupations, which are middle-income jobs, and these mothers are also more likely to have a unionized job, which is correlated with other positive job quality measures. Overall, the findings paint a nuanced picture of how the EITC affects job quality among unmarried mothers, with many indicators of improvements in job quality, alongside a few indicators of declines in job quality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

Zitatform

Monfardini, C. & E. Pisanelli (2026): Gender, Unpaid Work, and Social Norms in Young Italian Families: Evidence from Couples Time Diaries. (arXiv papers 2604.13896), 32 S.

Abstract

"Why do large gender inequalities in everyday life persist even as women strengthen their attachment to paid work? Existing evidence shows that women continue to do more unpaid work than men, but much of that evidence is based on individual diaries, says little about how inequality is jointly organized within couples, and rarely links daily time allocation to directly measured gender attitudes. This paper addresses that gap using the TIMES Observatory, an original survey of 1,928 co-resident couples with at least one child younger than 11 in Emilia-Romagna or Campania. The data combine matched partner diaries for one weekday and one weekend day with rich socio-economic information and direct measures of gender norms. We document three main findings. First, women do substantially more unpaid work and spend more time with children, while men do more paid work and enjoy more leisure without children. Second, these asymmetries remain sizeable even among dual full-time couples, implying that stronger female labor-market attachment does not by itself equalize daily life. Third, more traditional gender attitudes - especially among men - are descriptively associated with lower male participation in childcare and domestic work and with wider gaps in discretionary leisure. The analysis is descriptive rather than causal, but it shows that gender inequality within couples is visible not only in the amount of work performed, but also in the distribution of time that is genuinely discretionary." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Musick, Kelly & Wonjeong Jeong (2026): State-level gender inequality and couples’ relative earnings following parenthood over four decades. In: Social science research, Jg. 135. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103302

Abstract

"We draw from gender perspectives on the division of labor and emerging research on structural sexism to empirically evaluate how systemic gender inequality shapes within-couple earnings inequality at the turning point of parenthood. Our data on pre- and post-birth earnings come from successive couple-level panels of the Current Population Survey over four decades (1982–2020, N = 87,694 couples and 175,388 couple-observations), merged to state-level indicators of gender inequality spanning the same time period that tap the devaluation of work done by women across multiple domains. Results from fixed effect models suggest that state-level gender inequality shapes couples' responses to parenthood in meaningful ways, with steeper declines in wives' relative earnings among new parents living in states that place lower value on women's work. The estimated effect of sexism is gendered, operating through wives' earnings. It persists through the early childbearing years and across decades, and it varies little by measures of couples' social advantage. Evidence that structural sexism exacerbates earnings inequality among parents is robust, with implications for mothers' economic vulnerability and well-being." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))

Zitatform

Oesch, Daniel, Oliver Lipps, Roujman Shahbazian, Erik Bihagen & Katy Morris (2026): Occupational earning potential: a new measure of social hierarchy in Europe and the US. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 42, H. 3, S. 421-441. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcaf035

Abstract

"Social stratification is interested in unequal life chances and assumes the existence of a hierarchy of more or less advantageous occupations. Yet occupations are not easily translated into a linear hierarchical measure. Influential scales combine multiple indicators and lack intuitive interpretation. We therefore present a new scale based on occupations’ earnings potential (OEP). OEP measures the median earnings of occupations and expresses them as percentiles of the overall earnings structure: if mechanics earn the national median wage, their OEP is 50. We construct national OEP scales using annual microdata pooled over several decades for Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US. Consistent with the Treiman constant, these national scales are highly correlated over time and across countries, justifying the use of one common OEP scale. When applied to another European dataset, the common OEP scale explains a quarter of the variance in earnings—and works as well for men as women and as well for countries used to construct the scale as for other countries. Moreover, it is associated with the causes (education) and consequences (social mobility) that the theory expects. OEP thereby provides a simple and parsimonious indicator of economic advantage that can be meaningfully interpreted." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Pahula, Hildebrando & Charles Ambilichu (2026): Gender Pay Disclosure and Firm Performance: Quasi‐Experimental Evidence From the United Kingdom. In: BJIR. DOI:10.1111/bjir.70053

Abstract

"This paper investigates the impact of pay transparency on firm performance, measured as sales growth, in a large sample of UK-registered companies between 2005 and 2023. We employ a difference-in-difference approach based on the pay transparency regulation enacted in 2017, which mandated all companies registered in the United Kingdom with at least 250 employees to publicly disclose gender pay equality indicators. We show that the pay transparency regulation improved firm performance by 0.016 percentage points in terms of sales growth in companies affected by the law compared to those with under 250 employees. Furthermore, firms subject to the reporting requirement and led by women experienced faster sales growth (by about 0.01 percentage points) than those led by men, after the introduction of the law. Similarly, the positive effect of the pay transparency regulation on firm performance is more pronounced in industries with the largest share of female workers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Piolatto, Matteo, Marija Bashevska, Olga Leshchenko, Chantal Remery & Susanne Strauss (2026): The gendered division of housework in times of Covid-19: the role of essential worker status and work location. In: Journal of family studies, Jg. 32, H. 3, S. 339-358. DOI:10.1080/13229400.2025.2526468

Abstract

"The question whether the measures taken to curb the spread of Covid-19 exacerbated or reduced gender inequality with respect to the division of housework and childcare has initiated a large number of studies. This study adds to this field by investigating the role of an until now underexposed yet important element in the literature on the pandemic, which is the assignment of an essential worker status for one or two partners of a couple. Drawing on resource theory, we formulate different hypotheses on how an essential worker status impacts the gendered division of housework during the early phase of the Covid-19 pandemic in dual-earner opposite-sex couples. In addition, as essential work was often, but not always done on-site, we use the time availability perspective to formulate hypotheses on how the impact of being assigned the essential work status interacts with remote-work. We investigate these research questions in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands using household longitudinal panel data from UKHLS and COGIS-LISS, applying panel fixed effects models. The results suggest that having an essential occupation is a resource for women but not men to renegotiate the division of housework. This is particularly the case when one or both partners can work from home." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Raiber, Klara (2026): Fostering Skills and Relief: Positive Spillover Effects Between Unpaid Caregiving and Paid Work. In: Journal of Aging & Social Policy, Jg. 38, H. 4, S. 754-770. DOI:10.1080/08959420.2025.2561425

Abstract

"With the expected rise in unpaid caregiving, many caregivers will have to combine care with employment. While most research finds negative spillovers between caregiving and employment, it is crucial to understand the factors under which caregiving has positive spillover effects. Analyzing Dutch retrospective data from the Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social science (3,543 caregiving situations of 2,042 caregivers), this study examined how factors from the work environment and the caregiving situation are related to two positive spillovers, namely learned skills from caregiving for paid work and employment being a relief from caregiving. Results from multilevel models show that a working environment with high flexibility compared to no flexibility was related to more skill learning and relief. Further, we found that more understanding of managers and colleagues was related to learning skills, while managers and colleagues knowing about caregiving was linked to feeling relief. More diverse caregiving tasks were associated with more skills learned for paid work and more relief felt. These findings can guide state or firm-based policies to not only prevent negative but also foster positive spillovers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Raiber, Klara, Katja Möhring, Mark Visser & Ellen Verbakel (2026): Wage Premium or Wage Penalty? Gendered Long-term Wage Development of Family Caregivers. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 3-25. DOI:10.1177/09500170251348856

Abstract

"This study theoretically and empirically assesses the gendered relationship between family caregiving (excluding regular childcare) and wage development in the Netherlands applying conflict theory, which predicts a wage penalty due to difficulties in combining paid work and care, and enrichment theory, which expects a wage premium because of acquired skills and recognition. Growth curve modelling was used to analyse hourly wages from 19 years of register data combined with information on caregiving episodes, retrospectively collected among a Dutch sample (N = 2659 respondents and 324,940 months). Caregiving was distinguished by have-never cared, current caregivers and past caregivers, as well as by duration and intensity. The results showed that men’s wage growth slightly improved after caregiving stopped and when they provided intensive care. Women’s wage development was slightly weaker after caregiving stopped and when they provided intensive care. Thus, only men benefit from caregiving in terms of their wage growth, not women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Reiter, Claudia & Sonja Spitzer (2026): When Gender Trumps Skills: Employment Trajectories of Austrian Parents After Their First Birth. In: Comparative Population Studies, Jg. 51, S. 1-22. DOI:10.12765/cpos-2026-01

Abstract

"Increasing the labour market participation of mothers is often seen as a solution to address skill shortages in countries with long child-related career interruptions. However, little is known about the leave-taking behaviour of parents with higher and lower skill levels. This study addresses that gap by examining how employment trajectories after the transition to parenthood vary by gender and skill level in Austria, which has one of the longest parental leave entitlements globally. We focus on understanding whether skill differences shape leave-taking and labour market re-entry, and to what extent they explain the large and persistent gender gaps in parental employment. We use a new dataset that, for the first time, links Austrian administrative data on births and daily labour market activities (2009-2022) with tested skill scores from the OECD’s Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Our main sample includes 5,130 Austrians born between 1942 and 1997. We focus on tested numeracy skills, which are strongly associated with employment and wages, offer a more precise measure of work-relevant skills than formal education, and account for important parts of the gender pay gap. Adopting a life-course perspective, we observe labour market patterns between the ages 20 and 70, and examine the three years before and after the birth of a first child to capture short- and medium-term dynamics. We find clear differences by skill level. Higher-skilled women tend to return to employment more quickly and are more likely to use educational leave to extend their parental leave. Lower-skilled mothers, by contrast, experience longer periods out of the labour force. Among fathers, skill gradients are present as well: higher-skilled men are more likely to take parental leave than their lower-skilled counterparts, though leave uptake remains very low in absolute terms. However, gender trumps skills. On average, mothers take 416 days of paid parental leave following the birth of their first child, while fathers take just nine days. Most mothers remain at home well beyond the period of paid leave, and part-time work is common upon return – regardless of skill level. Our findings suggest that policies aimed at increasing female labour market participation − particularly among the skilled − face structural constraints. In a context of demographic ageing and rising skill shortages, improving access to early childcare and encouraging more balanced leave-taking may be necessary to reduce gender gaps and make better use of existing skills across the workforce." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Sander, Sarah (2026): Universal Daycare and Mothers’ Working Lifetime. In: The Economic Journal. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueag031

Abstract

"This paper examines the effects of universal daycare on mothers’ labour force participation, hours worked, full-time employment, and earnings over their working lives. I exploit variation in access created by the roll-out of daycare centres across Denmark, combined with rich administrative data. Daycare availability positively affects participation (2.3%), hours worked (3.1%), and earnings (3.7%) 16 years after the first child. Secondary fertility choices and parental separation appear to mediate these effects. The effects on labour market outcomes are driven by low-educated mothers, suggesting that lack of subsidised childcare is a larger employment barrier for low-educated mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Schütz, Jana (2026): Beliefs about the gender pension gap. In: European Economic Review, Jg. 184. DOI:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2025.105244

Abstract

"I conduct an online survey of 3000 respondents in the United States to examine individuals’ beliefs about the gender pension gap. By including an information provision experiment in which treated respondents are informed about the size of the gender pension gap, I examine whether receiving this information causally affects respondents’ perceptions of the fairness and drivers of the gender pension gap and their support for policies aimed at reducing it. I find that most respondents underestimate the gender pension gap and that treated respondents are less likely to perceive the gender pension gap as fair. In addition, treated respondents perceive the unequal distribution of care work and gender differences in wages as more important drivers of the gap, and their demand for remedial policies such as targeted financial education increases significantly. This increase in policy demand is driven by male respondents and Republicans." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Author. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

Zitatform

Shattuck, Rachel M. (2026): Cross-cohort employment differences among U.S. mothers of young children: The role of nonparental childcare. In: Social science research, Jg. 133. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103261

Abstract

"Following increased mothers' employment since the later 20th century, the majority of U.S. mothers now experience employment with children under age three. Most use nonparental childcare (NPC) while employed. NPC can include care provided in childcare centers and preschools, as well as by nannies, babysitters and relatives, and in family childcare homes. Changes since the 1980s to care costs and availability, labor market conditions, family structures, and public assistance policies may result in differences in the predictive relationship between NPC use and employment among late-20th vs. early-21st century mothers. I use National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979) (“Baby-Boomers”) and 1997 (“Millennials”) data to compare monthly likelihood of full-time employment, part-time employment, and employment exit—and how NPC use differently affects these—among mothers of children under three. A hybrid model including within-person and between-person components compares women to themselves at different points in time when they are employed either with or without NPC. NPC use increases full-time employment, and employment stability, for mothers in both cohorts. However, Millennials use NPC more than Baby-Boomers. Furthermore, NPC increases the likelihood of maintaining full-time employment, and transitioning from part-time to full-time employment, by larger magnitudes for Millennials than for Baby-Boomers. Supplementary descriptive analyses show changed care types, increased care costs, and increased nonstandard employment, all of which may contribute to this cross-cohort difference. Results demonstrate how NPC plays a key role in supporting employment within individual women's life courses, and how these effects may differ across different social and historical settings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))