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Acero, Isabel & Nuria Alcalde (2026): Gender pay gap among non-executive directors in Spanish boards. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 58, H. 24, S. 4667-4679. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2025.2499209

Abstract

"This study focuses on the existence or not of a gender pay gap (GPG) among non-executive directors (NEDs) in Spanish boards. For this purpose, we used a sample covering 4,018 positions/year for NEDs in 57 Spanish listed firms over a 10-year period (2013–2022). The results obtained suggest that, controlling for individual characteristics of the directors, the type of position held as well as the features of the company and its corporate governance system, female NEDs receive approximately 11% less remuneration than their male counterparts. Therefore, our findings do not support the idea that female directors are a scarce resource that firms compete for and reward. The results also highlight the need to differentiate by categories of directors when analysing the GPG in the board. In fact, we find that the GPG is higher for proprietary directors (around 18%) than for independent directors (around 6%). In terms of practical implications, our results may be of interest to policy-makers who are considering gender equity policies to break the glass ceiling." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Andersen, Kate (2026): Social Security, Gender and Class: The impacts of the Universal Credit Conditionality Regime on Unpaid Care and Paid Work. In: Social Policy and Society, Jg. 25, H. 1, S. 44-59. DOI:10.1017/S1474746424000071

Abstract

"The introduction of Universal Credit, a new means-tested benefit for working-aged people in the UK, entails a significant expansion of welfare conditionality. Due to mothers’ disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care, women are particularly affected by the new conditionality regime for parents who have the primary responsibility for the care of dependent children. This article draws upon qualitative longitudinal research with twenty-four mothers subject to the new conditionality regime to analyze the gendered impacts of this new policy and whether there is variation in experiences according to social class. The analysis demonstrates that the new conditionality regime devalues unpaid care and is of limited efficacy in improving sustained moves into paid work. It also shows that the negative gendered impacts of the conditionality within Universal Credit are at times exacerbated for working-class mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bairoh, Susanna, Satu Pyöriä & Niklas Mäkinen (2026): Disaggregating Gender Income Disparities in STEM: Cohort and Family Factors in a Nordic Welfare State. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 113-134. DOI:10.1177/09500170251366157

Abstract

"The article examines the income trajectories of women and men in STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) in Finland, a country within the Nordic labour market context that strives for gender equality. The study uses total population register data from Finnish STEM degree holders with at least a bachelor’s degree, aged 30–40 years, selecting cohorts born in 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975 and 1980 (N = 31,865). This study estimates how cohort, becoming a parent, and co-residing with a spouse affect income trajectories for women and men. The findings reveal persistent gender income disparities across cohorts, with economic turbulence potentially widening the differences. The results support the motherhood penalty and, unexpectedly, address a ‘living-alone penalty’ for men. Even with a design examining STEM graduates at the same career stage, gender differences remain significant and are not alleviated by the Nordic welfare state context." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Barbieri, Teresa, Michele Bavaro & Valeria Cirillo (2026): Falling behind unequally: labour market outcomes of Italian couples after childbirth*. In: Applied Economics, S. 1-20. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2026.2624051

Abstract

"This study explores how childbirth differently shapes the career trajectories of men and women within the same couples, with a particular focus on gender disparities in experiencing downward labour transitions following the birth of their first child. Using a unique survey-administrative linked dataset, we track couples’ labour market trajectories to analyse transitions from employment to unemployment, full-time to part-time employment, and higher-paid to lower-paid jobs. Additionally, the dataset allows to link partners, enabling the study of factors influencing differences in the probabilities of downward labour market transitions between partners in the same household. Our findings reveal substantial and persistent penalties for women, lasting up to three years after childbirth, which are mainly related to part-time job arrangements. When examining differences in probabilities within couples, households in which women have tertiary education with respect to their partners and are the primary earners exhibit smaller gender disparities in the likelihood of downward labour transitions with respect to other households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bibler, Andrew J. (2026): Labor supply responses to tax credit disbursements: Evidence from the EITC schedule. In: Economic Inquiry, Jg. 64, H. 2, S. 555-573. DOI:10.1111/ecin.70040

Abstract

"The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) schedule and lump-sum disbursement can create significant labor supply responses. I estimate labor supply responses to tax credit disbursements using a regression kink design. Among single workers, credits increase labor supply around the time that tax credits are disbursed at the first and second kinks in the EITC schedule but reduce labor supply on the intensive margin at the third kink. There is some evidence of heterogeneous responses among married women, including an increase in labor supply near the third kink, although findings in the sample of married women appear less robust." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Brega, Carla, Mara A. Yerkes & Marc Grau-Grau (2026): Fathers Combining Work and Care: Flexible Work Arrangements and Paternal Involvement Across Financial Situations. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 2, S. 225-249. DOI:10.1177/09500170251386322

Abstract

"Flexible work arrangements significantly impact childcare divisions among dual-earner parents, yet few studies address their impact on fathers as primary caregivers. This article explores the relationship between fathers’ ability to work flexibly and their share of childcare responsibility across financial situations. A capabilities perspective is applied to better understand why fathers’ childcare aspirations may not align with what they are capable of in practice. Using 2021 survey data on fathers (n = 493) and mothers (n = 472) of young children in different-sex partnerships from four European countries, multinomial logistic regressions are estimated to predict childcare responsibility. Findings suggest fathers’ spatial flexibility (working from home) increases their likelihood of being the person primarily responsible for childcare, whereas temporal flexibility (varying the start/end times of the working day) does not. Economic conditions influence these dynamics, with financially strained fathers benefiting most from spatial flexibility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brega, Carla (2026): Flexible Work Arrangements and Occupational Class: Fathers Navigating Childcare Responsibilities. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 33, H. 3, S. 1053-1064. DOI:10.1111/gwao.70111

Abstract

"When using flexible work arrangements for caregiving, fathers risk deviating from both social expectations of breadwinning and ideal worker standards, yet implications of this divergence across different occupational classes remain unclear. Using 40 semi-structured interviews with fathers from the Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, and the UK, this study explores and compares the negotiated use of flexible working arrangements (FWAs) for care among managerial-professional fathers and fathers in routine white-collar and blue-collar occupations. Employing abductive analysis within a constructivist grounded theory framework, the article delves into how fathers from different work-related backgrounds navigate the tension between their paid work (in)flexibility and their childcare involvement. Results show evidence of occupational-class differences in two key areas: Varying degrees of access to and use of FWAs for care; and navigating work and family dedication, including how fathers deal with competing commitments and what using flexibility implies for the tension between expectations of being both involved fathers and dedicated workers. At a higher level of abstraction, these contribute to theorization of a class-based double bind of fatherhood and flexibility, providing a much-needed view of how working fathers navigate the complexities of (gendered) organizational structures. Finally, implications are discussed, including organizational support addressing occupational-class barriers to FWAs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cairo, Sofie, Ria Ivandić, Anne Sophie Lassen & Valentina Tartari (2026): Parenthood and the Career Ladder: Evidence from Academia. (Discussion paper / Berlin School of Economics 0092), Berlin, 35 S., App. DOI:10.48462/opus4-6164

Abstract

"Persistent gender gaps in the labor market are largely driven by the underrepresentation of women at the top of most professions. We study how parenthood shapes gender gaps in academic careers using population-wide administrative and survey data linked to productivity and promotion records. Parenthood marks a sharp divergence in academic careers: one in three women exit academia following motherhood. Men also experience a decline in academic employment after fatherhood, but the effects are substantially smaller. For mothers, childbirth leads to a persistent decline in both tenure attainment and research output, while men's trajectories on these margins are unaffected by parenthood. The child penalty on tenure is driven primarily by women's higher exit rates from academia. Gender differences in career aspirations do not explain these findings; instead, childcare and mobility constraints play a central role. Child penalties are exacerbated in highly competitive environments and environments without senior female role models." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chalermsook, Porjai, Pekka Ilmakunnas & Rudiger von Arnim (2026): Exports, Gender Inequality, and Family Commitment. In: Labour, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 74-100. DOI:10.1111/labr.70007

Abstract

"This paper examines how exporting firms, gender, and family commitments interact to shape wage disparities. Using Finnish matched employer–employee data, we estimate wage equations that control for firm, worker, and match-specific unobservables. While exporting firms do not exhibit a wider gender wage gap overall, women with young children face additional short-run wage penalties, as shown by an event-study analysis that reveals a temporary but pronounced gap in the early post-childbirth years. These penalties are concentrated in occupations with greater temporal rigidity and limited scheduling flexibility, highlighting workplace flexibility constraints as a key mechanism. The findings suggest that the interaction between export-related temporal demands and caregiving responsibilities contributes to gendered wage dynamics. These results also raise questions about the continuing relevance of gender norms that disadvantage female employees, even in a context with strong public support for parental leave and childcare in Finland." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Coskun, Sena, Husnu Dalgic & Yasemin Özdemir (2026): Navigating Motherhood: Endogenous Penalties and Career Choice. (IAB-Discussion Paper 02/2026), Nürnberg, 57 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2602

Abstract

"Wir dokumentieren, dass Frauen sich vor der Geburt ihres ersten Kindes strategisch in „familienfreundliche” Sektoren sortieren, die durch geringere Erfahrungswerte, aber niedrigere Einbußen pro Kind gekennzeichnet sind. Dieses antizipatorische Sortieren stellt ex-ante Kosten der Mutterschaft dar, die von herkömmlichen Maßen für die Child Penalty gänzlich übersehen werden. Wir entwickeln ein Modell heterogener Akteure für Berufswahl und Fertilität, um diese „Sorting Penalty” zu quantifizieren. Unser zentrales Ergebnis ist, dass der direkte Einkommensverlust durch berufliches Sortieren zwar gering ist, dieses Resultat jedoch die hohe Wirksamkeit der primären Instrumente offenbart, mit denen Frauen Mutterschaft bewältigen: die Qualität-Quantität (Q-Q) und Zeitverwendung (T-E) Trade-offs. Durch empirische Evidenz für beide Spielräume zeigen wir, dass Frauen keine passiven Subjekte von Child Penalties sind; sie sind aktive, strategische Akteurinnen, die diese feineren Abwägungen nutzen, um familiäre Ziele zu erreichen und gleichzeitig berufliche Kosten zu mildern. Unsere Ergebnisse unterstreichen: Da Fertilität und Benachteiligungen zutiefst endogen sind, werden politische Rahmenbedingungen, die diese Trade-offs ausschließen, die Fertilitätsreaktionen und Karrierekosten von Interventionen grundlegend falsch berechnen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Costa-Ramón, Ana, Michaela Slotwinski, Ursina Schaede & Anne Ardila Brenøe (2026): (Not) Thinking About the Future: Financial Information and Maternal Labor Supply. In: The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Jg. 141, H. 2, S. 1335-1382. DOI:10.1093/qje/qjag003

Abstract

"Does information about the long-run financial costs of reduced labor supply increase mothers ’ working hours? We document descriptively that long-term financial factors are not top of mind when mothers decide on their employment level. Moreover, a substantial share of women holds overly optimistic expectations about pension receipt and wage growth under part-time work. In a large-scale field experiment in Switzerland, we randomly assign mothers working part-time as teachers to receive objective information about the long-run costs of reduced labor supply. The treatment increases both demand for financial information and future labor supply plans, in particular among women who underestimate the costs of part-time work. Leveraging linked employer administrative data one year post-intervention, we find that this group of mothers increases working hours by 7 percent. These findings underscore that policies reducing information frictions in labor supply decisions may help address remaining gender gaps in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cruz, João, Amélia Bastos, Sara Falcão Casaca & Isabel Proença (2026): Gender pay gap trends across STEM fields: an empirical analysis. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 46, H. 3-4, S. 426-447. DOI:10.1108/ijssp-02-2025-0090

Abstract

"Purpose: This paper analyses the gender pay gap (GPG) in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) in Portugal over the past decade, utilising official national earnings data. Design/methodology/approach: A decomposition method is applied to estimate the explained and unexplained components of the GPG both at the mean and across the distribution quartiles of national earnings. This methodology can also be applied to other sectors or countries, providing robust statistical and econometric results relating to the GPG. Findings: The results show that the GPG varies heterogeneously across STEM fields. In occupations relating to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), which are included in STEM, the GPG has been widening in recent years, in contrast to the overall trend in the labour force. Originality/value: The GPG in STEM is under-researched, with existing literature indicating a structural gap in these occupations. Understanding this GPG is essential for its reduction and for maximising human capital, which is vital for social and economic growth. This article aims to contribute to the discussion on this topic and offers potential policy recommendations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Cui, Sizhan, Zhuofei Lu & Senhu Wang (2026): Gender and Parenthood Differences in Work Time Fragmentation in the United States: The Moderating Role of Occupational Class. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 182, H. 1. DOI:10.1007/s11205-026-03815-x

Abstract

"Work time fragmentation refers to the number of distinct work episodes in a day, indicating disruptions in work schedules and the degree of workday fragmentation. With the expansion of flexible labor markets in the U.S., work time fragmentation has become more prevalent. Although gender and parenthood differences in labor market outcomes and family responsibilities are well studied, their manifestation in work time fragmentation remains underexplored. Using data from the American Time Use Survey 2003–2023 and OLS regression models, this study is the first to examine gender and parenthood differences in work time fragmentation and their variation by occupational class. Findings indicate that women experience greater fragmentation than men. For women, those with dependent children, particularly those with young children, show greater fragmentation than women without coresidential children. This pattern is most pronounced among those in higher occupational classes. For men, there is no evidence showing that there is a difference in work time fragmentation intensity by parenthood status or occupational class. The findings underscore the importance of equitable parental leave, shared caregiving responsibilities, and supportive workplace structures in addressing these dynamics and promoting equity in work-family relationships." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Deming, Sarah M. (2026): Antecedents of Motherhood Penalties: The Work-Care Preferences of Socioeconomically Diverse Expectant Mothers. In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 47, H. 1, S. 74-94. DOI:10.1007/s10834-025-10071-7

Abstract

"This study contributes to the work-family literature in three ways. First, it challenges the emphasis on the economic impacts of motherhood by introducing a framework—Work-Care Preferences (WCP)—that acknowledges how women’s personal orientations to paid work and to motherhood converge to create varied preferences for how (or whether) to best combine the two. Second, documenting how women’s WCPs are influenced by socioeconomic status illuminates a previously unidentified mechanism by which motherhood penalties are unequally experienced. Lastly, by highlighting how expectant mothers’ personal conceptions of paid work influence their subsequent WCPs, it offers opportunities to design workplace and policy-level interventions to support maternal employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Denderski, Piotr & Tim Obermeier (2026): Household taxation, nonlinear occupations, and gender gaps. (CEP discussion paper / Centre for Economic Performance 2140), London, 23 S., App.

Abstract

"An enduring source of gender inequality is that some high-paying ("nonlinear") occupations penalize balancing work and household time commitments, as emphasized by Goldin (2014). We ask how household taxation interacts with these occupational differences to shape gender gaps in hours, wages, and occupational choice, and whether these differences materially affect the impact of tax reforms. We address these questions in a structural Roy model of household labor supply with occupation-specific earnings-hours nonlinearities and progressive taxation, calibrated to US data. We find that a balanced-budget switch to separately filed progressive taxes significantly reduces the gender gaps in hours and occupational choice, while the wage gap declines more modestly. These improvements arise because the reform lowers marginal tax rates for secondary earners and raises them for primary earners. By contrast, proportional taxation yields much smaller reductions in gender gaps. In both reforms, the standard labor-supply channel accounts for roughly two-thirds of the overall taxable- income response, while the convex earnings-hours relationship amplifies these effects and explains most of the remainder. Occupational switching contributes little because those who do switch are negatively selected." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Echeverría, Lucía, J. Ignacio Giménez-Nadal & José Alberto Molina (2026): Commuting in dual-earner households: international gender differences with time use surveys. In: Review of Economics of the Household, Jg. 24, H. 1, S. 303-325. DOI:10.1007/s11150-024-09726-5

Abstract

"Prior studies show men commute longer than women, often due to household responsibilities. However, research on commuting differences within couples is limited. This study examines gender gaps in commuting times and mode choices among dual-earner couples in Spain, Italy, South Korea, and the UK. Using Ordinary Least Squares regressions, we find that the presence of children significantly increases gender gaps in commuting times in Italy and the UK, supporting the household responsibility hypothesis. Conversely, no significant link between children and gender gaps is observed in Spain and Korea. Additionally, children’s presence affects commuting mode choices in Italy across all modes, and in Korea for public transit only, with Italian women showing the most changes in commuting mode when children are present." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Emery, Tom (2026): Inequalities in early childcare strategies: Evidence from Dutch administrative data. In: Advances in life course research, Jg. 67. DOI:10.1016/j.alcr.2026.100727

Abstract

"This study examines whether the well-documented socioeconomic gradient in formal childcare use is reflected in the timing, sequencing, and stability of childcare and employment strategies following the critical life course transition to parenthood. While higher-SES parents are consistently more likely to use formal childcare, the reasons for this disparity remain poorly understood principally due to data limitations and the complexity of household dynamics. Drawing on linked Dutch administrative data (2010–2019), we use multichannel sequence analysis to identify distinct “childcare strategies” across the first four years of children’s lives, capturing monthly trajectories of formal childcare use and parental employment. A subsequent multinomial regression models the association between these strategies and socioeconomic status. The results reveal wide variation in the stability, intensity, and timing of formal childcare use, closely intertwined with maternal employment patterns. Children from lower-SES households are more likely to experience complex, fragmented, and fragile childcare trajectories—characterized by delayed entry, irregular usage, and lower alignment with stable employment—confirming and extending findings from prior qualitative research. By quantifying these patterns across a full population cohort, the study demonstrates how childcare complexity itself reflects and reinforces broader social inequalities. We conclude that childcare policies must move beyond affordability to address accessibility, stability, and administrative complexity—particularly for parents with low incomes, precarious jobs, or self-employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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Filser, Andreas, Pascal Achard, Corinna Frodermann, Dana Müller & Sander Wagner (2026): Stratification of post-birth labour supply in a high- and low- maternal employment regime. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 102, 2026-01-30. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2026.101133

Abstract

"This paper compares the magnitude and stratification of motherhood employment penalties in France and Germany, two countries with contrasting institutional orientations towards maternal employment. While prior research has documented cross-national variation in the size of motherhood penalties, less is known about how macro-level contexts shape their stratification across socioeconomic groups. Using harmonized administrative employment data on 18,948 French and 72,632 German mothers, who were employed prior to first birth between 1997 and 2014, we estimate labour market participation trajectories for five years following childbirth. Across both countries, women with higher pre-birth income, higher education, and employment in higher-wage firms experience substantially smaller reductions in labour supply, with income emerging as the strongest stratifying dimension. Motherhood penalties are markedly smaller in France, amounting to less than one-third of the reduction observed in Germany. Yet penalties in France are more strongly stratified: mothers in the lowest income quintile experience participation losses 3.14 times larger than mothers in the highest quintile, compared to a ratio of 1.17 in Germany. Within Germany, East German mothers face smaller but more stratified penalties than West German mothers. Finally, we test whether the macro-level pattern of larger penalties associated with weaker stratification also generalizes to 65 NUTS-2 regions. We find no systematic association between the size and stratification of motherhood penalties at the regional level. The findings suggest that institutional contexts supporting high maternal employment reduce overall penalties but pose particular challenges for mothers from lower socio-economic backgrounds who reintegrate less rapidly into the labour market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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Filser, Andreas, Pascal Achard, Inga Marie Amend, Corinna Frodermann, Ida Gaede & Sander Wagner (2026): Harmonising French and German administrative DADS-EDP and SIAB data. A practical guide on how to create comparable data sets on maternal employment. In: Journal for labour market research, Jg. 60, H. 1, 2026-05-08. DOI:10.1186/s12651-026-00430-8

Abstract

"Administrative data are increasingly used in social science research, including for studying the labour market consequences of motherhood. Yet despite the growing use of such data within countries, cross-national comparative research remains limited because administrative data require substantial harmonisation before meaningful comparisons are possible. In this paper, we harmonise two rich administrative data sets suitable for comparative research on maternal employment: the French DADS-EDP and the German SIAB. France and Germany present a compelling case for such comparisons given their differing norms and policies regarding childcare and maternal employment. We document our harmonisation decisions on data structure, sample selection, employment measurement, and key socio-economic variables, and provide the full Stata code as supplementary material. We illustrate the potential of the harmonised data by examining how maternal employment trajectories evolve over time in France, West Germany, and East Germany. The analysis reveals substantial cross-national and temporal variation in employment trajectories after childbirth, highlighting the value of harmonised administrative data for comparative research on maternal employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fortes de Lena, Fernanda & Diederik Boertien (2026): A Marriage Premium for Whom? Sexual Identity, Relationship Status and Earnings. In: Journal of Marriage and Family, Jg. 88, H. 1, S. 81-99. DOI:10.1111/jomf.70005

Abstract

"Objective: This article aims to understand how relationship status is associated with earnings among LGB people. Background: Previous research has found that marriage is related to higher earnings for men and lower earnings for women, but has not often considered whether this holds across different sexual identities. Method: We use the longitudinal Understanding Society data from the UK to show how the earnings of LGB individuals are associated with relationship status (single, non-residential partner, residential partner, married). Results: Cohabiting or married men generally earn more compared to single men, regardless of sexual identity. However, gay men's earnings only increase after marrying, whereas heterosexual and bisexual men's earnings increase after entering any co-residential relationship. This suggests that gay men might receive more social support or employer approval after entering a normative relationship form. Heterosexual women start earning less after marriage, whereas the impact of changes in relationship status on earnings is relatively small and non-significant for bisexual and lesbian women. These results are largely explained by paid and unpaid work hours, suggesting that the division of labor within relationships lowers earnings among heterosexual women but not among LGB women. Conclusion: LGB women's earnings depend relatively little on changes in relationship status. At the same time, gay men only receive premiums related to having a partner once they marry." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gasior, Katrin, Silvia Avram & Daria Popova (2026): Invisible gaps: Women’s individual poverty risks and the gendered failings of the adult worker model. In: Economic Systems, Jg. 50, H. 2. DOI:10.1016/j.ecosys.2025.101363

Abstract

"Since the early 2000s, welfare states in Europe have shifted their primary focus from providing social protection against labour market risks to the activation of all individuals into employment. As a way to limit poverty risks, this strategy ignores the ‘care penalties’ many women face in the labour market. Official poverty statistics ignore intrahousehold inequalities in resource allocation, thereby possibly overestimating the economic resources of women. This study contributes to the literature on the gendered consequences of welfare policies by estimating poverty risks for men and women using individualised incomes and assessing the extent to which observed gender gaps in poverty risk can be linked to the adult worker model. Additionally, the role played by taxes and social transfers in mitigating the gender gap in individual poverty risk is examined. Results show that only around one third of women in Europe fit the standard full-time, year-round employment model. Inactive and unemployed women have particularly high individual poverty risks, but even women who work fulltime and are continuously employed are more prone to poverty than men, highlighting the role of gender pay gaps. Social transfers cushion some of the gendered gap in poverty risk, while direct taxes and social insurance contributions have a disequalizing effect at the bottom of income distribution, especially for workers in atypical employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Gibbs, Chloe, Esra Kose & Maria Rosales-Rueda (2026): More Hours, More Work: Head Start Expansions Boost Maternal Employment. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 34831), Cambridge, Mass, 35 S.

Abstract

"Women's employment remains highly sensitive to childcare constraints, making childcare availability a critical lever for supporting mothers' labor force attachment. We study the effects of expanded full-day programming in Head Start, using the 2016 federal funding initiative that targeted grantees with low full-day enrollment. Linking administrative program data, geo-coded center locations, and household data on employment, we estimate a difference-in-differences design by comparing mothers of young children in treated and untreated areas. The policy increased full-day enrollment by 19 percent and raised single mothers' employment (1.9%), hours (2.5%), and earnings (6.5%). Results show that extending program duration meaningfully improves maternal labor market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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González, Libertad, Sergi Jiménez-Martín, Natalia Nollenberger & Judit Vall Castello (2026): The Effect of Access to Legal Abortion on Fertility, Marriage, and Long-term Outcomes for Women. In: The Economic Journal, Jg. 136, H. 674, S. 440-467. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueaf054

Abstract

"We evaluate the short- and long-term effects for women of access to legal, subsidized abortion. We find evidence that the legalization of abortion in Spain in 1985 led to an immediate decrease in births, more pronounced for younger women in provinces with a higher supply of abortion services. Affected women were more likely to graduate from high school, less likely to marry young, less likely to divorce in the long-term, and reported higher life satisfaction as adults. We find at most small reductions in completed fertility, while we do not find meaningful effects on labour market outcomes in the long run." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gupta, Renu, Gill Kirton & Suki Sian (2026): Temporal Signification of Careers and Organizational Return‐to‐Work Barriers After an Extended Career Break: Insights From Professional Women in the United Kingdom. In: Gender, work & organization, Jg. 33, H. 2, S. 412-428. DOI:10.1111/gwao.70050

Abstract

"In this article, we explore the phenomenon of professional women's childcare-related extended career breaks taken immediately or soon after maternity leave and organizational barriers experienced in their subsequent return to work. Applying a temporal lens to Barley's career model, we analyze how organizational objective clock-time and women's experience of subjective time in relation to extended career breaks mediate their understanding of organizational barriers in returning to work. Demonstrating the interlinkages between structure and agency, we present “continuity” and “presence” as two temporal career scripts that create specific return-to-work barriers for women professionals as they fall out of sync with time during the extended break and face temporal inequities upon return to the workplace. We establish that in the context of women professionals returning from childcare-related extended career breaks, structural elements outweigh individual agency. We conclude this article with a call for organizational support to overcome return barriers arising out of temporal career scripts. We also suggest that future research could usefully explore organizational policies and practices aimed at reintegrating and retaining professional women returning to work from extended childcare-related career breaks." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Haas, Linda & C. Philip Hwang (2026): Fathers use of extended parental leave: exploring company barriers in Sweden. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 29, H. 3, S. 386-407. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2024.2411026

Abstract

"In Sweden, men's parental leave rights are considered important for realizing gender equality. Men have the same compensated leave rights as women: three months each of nontransferable and transferable leave. Nevertheless, less than 20% of couples share leave equally (each taking 40% or more of all leave days). Understanding the circumstances under which fathers take leave beyond nontransferable months is important if equality is to be realized, yet few studies investigate this. Our survey of human resource directors in Sweden's top companies revealed extended leave use was not normative for fathers’ and especially male top managers and aspects of the gendered culture and structure of work organizations were associated with less extended leave use. Company awareness of parental leaves benefits for the company was significantly and independently related to fathers’ and top male managers extended leave use. Positive workplace attitudes and less job specialization increased fathers’ extended leave use. Companies’ setting fewer conditions encouraged more top male managers to take extended leave, as did a policy of managerial training to facilitate fathers’ leaves. Greater understanding of company barriers to fathers’ extended parental leave use may encourage companiesto remove those barriers which can increase fathers’ use of extended parental leave." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Hieda, Takeshi (2026): Beyond left and right: Socio-cultural determinants of parenting leave policy in advanced democracies. In: Journal of European Social Policy. DOI:10.1177/09589287251410874

Abstract

"This study examines the political determinants of parenting leave policy across 21 OECD countries from 1970 to 2021. While prior research has linked parenting leave expansion to social democratic and Christian democratic governments, this paper argues that party positions in the two-dimensional ideological space—socio-economic left–right and socio-cultural libertarian–authoritarian—better explain policy preferences. Using mixed-effects ordered logit models, the analysis reveals that socio-cultural rather than socio-economic positions drive parenting leave expansion. Governments with libertarian socio-cultural orientations are more likely to extend paid maternity, paternity, and parental leave for both mothers and fathers. These findings remain robust even when controlling for party family, indicating that the influence of Christian democratic and social democratic governments stems from their shifts towards libertarian positions. The study provides new insights into the partisan determinants of parenting leave policy, highlighting the role of socio-cultural competition in shaping welfare state transformations in post-industrial democracies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Johnson, Katherine M. & Christina McCarthy (2026): The leave gap: actual versus optimal maternity leave in a sample of US breastfeeding women. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 29, H. 1, S. 43-50. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2024.2339318

Abstract

"Access to quality parental leave is a prominent US work-family issue and crucial for supporting maternal and child health, including breastfeeding outcomes. This is even more salient given the recently updated US public health recommendation to breastfeed for up to two-plus years. Yet little prior research on work-breastfeeding conflict, has addressed breastfeeding women's perceptions of maternity leave. How much leave do breastfeeding women want relative to what they receive? What shapes their optimal leave perceptions? Using in-depth interview data, we first examined the leave gap between optimal and actual leave duration. Most interviewees reported a leave deficit, averaging 20 weeks. We then examined perceptions of optimal leave - identifying four themes: (1) making comparisons, (2) role transition and adjustment, (3) the developing child, and (4) return-readiness. Overall, we argue that it is important to consider ideal leave and the leave gap, which may produce further strain for breastfeeding employees." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kelly, Elaine & Isabel Stockton (2026): A senior doctor like me: Gender match and occupational choice. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 99. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2026.102863

Abstract

"Men and women consistently sort into different occupations and fields within occupations, contributing to persistent gender inequality in economic outcomes. In this paper, we examine how social factors influence this sorting, specifically the gender composition of supervisors early in one’s career. Our setting is the English National Health Service, where medical specialties vary widely in their gender composition. We exploit features of the doctor training pathway that generate quasi-random variation in junior doctors’ exposure to senior women. We find greater exposure to senior women specialists increases the probability of junior women subsequently training in their specialty, but only in very male-dominated training placements. A junior woman exposed to a 10 percentage point higher share of senior women specialists during a placement is 1.7 percentage points or 24% more likely to pursue training in the placement specialty, if the share of senior women doctors is below one in five. This effect corresponds to two-fifths of the gender gap in training choices, and appears even in specialties that are not particularly male-dominated as a whole. Heterogeneity analyses suggest that access to and relatability of potential role models matter, and that gender match effects interact with preferences for geographic and schedule flexibility." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, ©2026 Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Khaliliaraghi, Negar, Petter Lundborg & Johan Vikström (2026): Gender Gaps Under Comparable Tasks: Evidence from Quasi-Random Assignment. (CESifo working paper 12413), München, 57 S.

Abstract

"Gender gaps in earnings persist even among high-skilled workers, partly because men and women often perform different tasks within and across jobs. We study a rare setting in which high-skilled men and women perform the same tasks under comparable conditions, allowing us to assess gender differences in productivity and pay without confounding from task or client allocation. Using administrative data from the Swedish Public Employment Service between 2003 and 2014, we exploit a rotation scheme that quasi-randomly assigns job seekers to employment caseworkers. This ensures male and female caseworkers are matched with comparable clients. We find productivity differences are small: job seekers assigned to female and male caseworkers exit unemployment at similar rates, with no evidence of job-quality differences. Consistent with this, hourly wages—conditional on productivity—are nearly identical across genders. Despite this, female caseworkers earn about 8 percent less per year, due to differences in contracted and actual hours worked. We also find suggestive evidence that male caseworkers are more likely to be promoted than equally productive female colleagues. Overall, when tasks are standardized and performance is measured objectively, gender differences in productivity and hourly pay are minimal, while gaps in annual earnings and career progression persist." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Krafft, Caroline & Maye Ehab (2026): Employment Conditions in the Paid Care Economy in Egypt:: Improvement or Deterioration? In: Journal for labour market research, Jg. 60, H. 1, 2026-03-14. DOI:10.1186/s12651-026-00426-4

Abstract

"This paper examines the evolution of the paid care economy in Egypt, over 2009-21, assessing trends in employment and employment conditions. The analyses demonstrate that, despite goals to grow the paid care economy, paid care employment has shrunk over time in Egypt, driven by the retreat of the public sector. Furthermore, employment conditions in care employment have worsened over time, in part due to the increasing privatization of care employment. The informal share of care employment (without social insurance coverage) has increased over time. While initially there was not a care pay gap, one has formed over time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer) ((en))

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Kulik, Liat (2026): Does the marital pay gap matter? Women’s family-work experiences by earning pattern and ethnic community. In: Community, work & family, Jg. 29, H. 3, S. 345-364. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2024.2398584

Abstract

"This study explored variations in women’s experiences within the family-work system by different earning patterns: where men outearn women, both spouses earn equally, or women outearn men. This examination was conducted in three major ethnic communities in Israel: Jews in the general population, ultraOrthodox Jews, and Arabs. The analysis focused on three dimensions of the family-work system: behavioral (perceived family and work time), cognitive (assessment of family-work conflict), and affective (marital satisfaction). In all three communities, women who outearned their spouses tended to dedicate more hours to paid work and less to family and household responsibilities. However, based on women’s perceptions, men allocated the same number of hours to family responsibilities, irrespective of their ethnicity or earning patterns. In the Arab community, women earning the same or more than their spouses experienced heightened work-family conflict compared to those with different earning patterns in their community. Finally, ultra-Orthodox women reported the highest levels of marital satisfaction, regardless of earning pattern. Based on these findings, organizations should be encouraged to implement family-friendly policies to support women, especially in traditional communities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Laroche, Patrice, Alex Bryson, Heather Joshi & David Wilkinson (2026): The Gender Wage Gap in Britain: A Meta-Analysis. (RF Berlin - CReAM Discussion Paper Series 2026,86), Berlin, 49 S.

Abstract

"Ours is the first meta-analysis synthesizing results from econometric studies carried out in the UK to assess the size of the gender wage gap (GWG). Drawing on 90 primary studies published between 1974 and 2024 we assess trends in the gap and identify the substantive and methodological factors that explain variance in results across studies. Expressed relative to men's earnings, the raw GWG averages 25 log points but falls to 13 log points when adjusting for covariates. There has been convergence in the mean wages of men and women at a rate of about 0.3 percentage points per annum, most of which reflects change in the characteristics of workers and their treatment in the labour market rather than differences over time in study characteristics. There is substantial heterogeneity in the size of the GWG by year of observation, worker type and research design, although differences in the size of adjusted GWG by study design are not as large as most economists might imagine." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lavest, Chloé, Lucas G. Drouhot, Meta van der Linden & Frank van Tubergen (2026): Beyond the ‘integration paradox’: educational attainment similarly predicts gender discrimination among women and ethnic discrimination among minorities. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 42, H. 1, S. 103-117. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcaf039

Abstract

"Highly educated individuals of immigrant origins perceive more ethnic discrimination than their less educated counterparts—a now well-established finding referred to as the ‘integration paradox’. In this paper, we study whether this purported paradox captures general educational effects on the lived experiences of historically disadvantaged populations going beyond the scope of integration among immigrants. We compare the educational gradient of perceptions of ethno-racial discrimination among ethnic minorities with the educational gradient of perceptions of gender discrimination among women. We also study intersectional dimensions in the experiences of minority women and those reporting multiple grounds for discrimination. Analyses based on representative data from two cross-sectional surveys in France - Trajectoires et Origines 1 and 2—involving over 35,000 respondents show that highly educated individuals, including both ethnic minorities and women, are more likely to report discrimination. Individuals who report discrimination on one ground are also more likely to report it on another ground. Our results suggest that the so-called integration paradox reflects more general educational effects on subjective experiences of exclusion that are not unique to immigrant-origin populations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Liu, Andrew Yizhou (2026): Paid family leave and occupational mobility. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 58, H. 34, S. 6958-6969. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2025.2526858

Abstract

"Paid family leave (PFL) programmes provide temporary financial support and workplace flexibility for mothers, potentially influencing their occupational choices after childbirth. I find that state-level PFL programs reduce downward occupational mobility among women aged 19 to 35 with children aged 0 to 3 by approximately 42%, with stronger effects among high-school educated, black, and single mothers. However, these policies have no significant impact on upward occupational mobility, indicating that PFL alone may be insufficient for reducing the gender gap in occupation." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Maralani, Vida, Camille Portier & Berkay Özcan (2026): Early Childhood Investments and Women’s Work Outcomes across the Life Course. In: Sociological Science, Jg. 13, S. 214-241. DOI:10.15195/v13.a9

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Marchingiglio, Riccardo & Michael Poyker (2026): The Economics of Gender-Specific Minimum Wage Legislation. In: Journal of labor economics, Jg. 44, H. 3, S. 1009-1063. DOI:10.1086/733493

Abstract

"Using full count U.S. census data, we study the impact of early 20th-century state-industry-specific minimum wage laws that primarily targeted female employees. Our triple-difference estimates suggest a null impact of the minimum wage laws, potentially reflecting disemployment effects and the positive selection bias of the workers remaining in the labor force. When comparing county-industry Trends between counties straddling state borders, female employment is lower by around 3.1% in affected county-industry cells. We further investigate the implications for own-wage elasticity of labor demand as afunction of cross-industry concentration, the channels of substitution between men and women, and heterogeneity by marital status." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Michelmore, Katherine & Natasha Pilkauskas (2026): More than just work: The effect of the Earned Income Tax Credit on job quality. In: Labour Economics, Jg. 99. DOI:10.1016/j.labeco.2026.102867

Abstract

"Using a simulated benefits approach and data from the Current Population Survey we examine how expansions to the EITC affected the job quality of unmarried mothers in the U.S. Following expansions to the EITC, we find increases in employment, wages, and fringe benefits such as employer-provided health insurance and retirement plans among unmarried mothers, all indicators of improvements in job quality. On the other hand, we also find evidence that the EITC increases overwork, or working >45 h per week, a negative indicator of job quality. Though mothers are not moved into high-quality professional jobs, they are more likely to work in manual labour and transportation occupations, which are middle-income jobs, and these mothers are also more likely to have a unionized job, which is correlated with other positive job quality measures. Overall, the findings paint a nuanced picture of how the EITC affects job quality among unmarried mothers, with many indicators of improvements in job quality, alongside a few indicators of declines in job quality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Monfardini, C. & E. Pisanelli (2026): Gender, Unpaid Work, and Social Norms in Young Italian Families: Evidence from Couples Time Diaries. (arXiv papers 2604.13896), 32 S.

Abstract

"Why do large gender inequalities in everyday life persist even as women strengthen their attachment to paid work? Existing evidence shows that women continue to do more unpaid work than men, but much of that evidence is based on individual diaries, says little about how inequality is jointly organized within couples, and rarely links daily time allocation to directly measured gender attitudes. This paper addresses that gap using the TIMES Observatory, an original survey of 1,928 co-resident couples with at least one child younger than 11 in Emilia-Romagna or Campania. The data combine matched partner diaries for one weekday and one weekend day with rich socio-economic information and direct measures of gender norms. We document three main findings. First, women do substantially more unpaid work and spend more time with children, while men do more paid work and enjoy more leisure without children. Second, these asymmetries remain sizeable even among dual full-time couples, implying that stronger female labor-market attachment does not by itself equalize daily life. Third, more traditional gender attitudes - especially among men - are descriptively associated with lower male participation in childcare and domestic work and with wider gaps in discretionary leisure. The analysis is descriptive rather than causal, but it shows that gender inequality within couples is visible not only in the amount of work performed, but also in the distribution of time that is genuinely discretionary." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Musick, Kelly & Wonjeong Jeong (2026): State-level gender inequality and couples’ relative earnings following parenthood over four decades. In: Social science research, Jg. 135. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103302

Abstract

"We draw from gender perspectives on the division of labor and emerging research on structural sexism to empirically evaluate how systemic gender inequality shapes within-couple earnings inequality at the turning point of parenthood. Our data on pre- and post-birth earnings come from successive couple-level panels of the Current Population Survey over four decades (1982–2020, N = 87,694 couples and 175,388 couple-observations), merged to state-level indicators of gender inequality spanning the same time period that tap the devaluation of work done by women across multiple domains. Results from fixed effect models suggest that state-level gender inequality shapes couples' responses to parenthood in meaningful ways, with steeper declines in wives' relative earnings among new parents living in states that place lower value on women's work. The estimated effect of sexism is gendered, operating through wives' earnings. It persists through the early childbearing years and across decades, and it varies little by measures of couples' social advantage. Evidence that structural sexism exacerbates earnings inequality among parents is robust, with implications for mothers' economic vulnerability and well-being." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))

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Oesch, Daniel, Oliver Lipps, Roujman Shahbazian, Erik Bihagen & Katy Morris (2026): Occupational earning potential: a new measure of social hierarchy in Europe and the US. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 42, H. 3, S. 421-441. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcaf035

Abstract

"Social stratification is interested in unequal life chances and assumes the existence of a hierarchy of more or less advantageous occupations. Yet occupations are not easily translated into a linear hierarchical measure. Influential scales combine multiple indicators and lack intuitive interpretation. We therefore present a new scale based on occupations’ earnings potential (OEP). OEP measures the median earnings of occupations and expresses them as percentiles of the overall earnings structure: if mechanics earn the national median wage, their OEP is 50. We construct national OEP scales using annual microdata pooled over several decades for Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US. Consistent with the Treiman constant, these national scales are highly correlated over time and across countries, justifying the use of one common OEP scale. When applied to another European dataset, the common OEP scale explains a quarter of the variance in earnings—and works as well for men as women and as well for countries used to construct the scale as for other countries. Moreover, it is associated with the causes (education) and consequences (social mobility) that the theory expects. OEP thereby provides a simple and parsimonious indicator of economic advantage that can be meaningfully interpreted." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Pahula, Hildebrando & Charles Ambilichu (2026): Gender Pay Disclosure and Firm Performance: Quasi‐Experimental Evidence From the United Kingdom. In: BJIR. DOI:10.1111/bjir.70053

Abstract

"This paper investigates the impact of pay transparency on firm performance, measured as sales growth, in a large sample of UK-registered companies between 2005 and 2023. We employ a difference-in-difference approach based on the pay transparency regulation enacted in 2017, which mandated all companies registered in the United Kingdom with at least 250 employees to publicly disclose gender pay equality indicators. We show that the pay transparency regulation improved firm performance by 0.016 percentage points in terms of sales growth in companies affected by the law compared to those with under 250 employees. Furthermore, firms subject to the reporting requirement and led by women experienced faster sales growth (by about 0.01 percentage points) than those led by men, after the introduction of the law. Similarly, the positive effect of the pay transparency regulation on firm performance is more pronounced in industries with the largest share of female workers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Piolatto, Matteo, Marija Bashevska, Olga Leshchenko, Chantal Remery & Susanne Strauss (2026): The gendered division of housework in times of Covid-19: the role of essential worker status and work location. In: Journal of family studies, Jg. 32, H. 3, S. 339-358. DOI:10.1080/13229400.2025.2526468

Abstract

"The question whether the measures taken to curb the spread of Covid-19 exacerbated or reduced gender inequality with respect to the division of housework and childcare has initiated a large number of studies. This study adds to this field by investigating the role of an until now underexposed yet important element in the literature on the pandemic, which is the assignment of an essential worker status for one or two partners of a couple. Drawing on resource theory, we formulate different hypotheses on how an essential worker status impacts the gendered division of housework during the early phase of the Covid-19 pandemic in dual-earner opposite-sex couples. In addition, as essential work was often, but not always done on-site, we use the time availability perspective to formulate hypotheses on how the impact of being assigned the essential work status interacts with remote-work. We investigate these research questions in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands using household longitudinal panel data from UKHLS and COGIS-LISS, applying panel fixed effects models. The results suggest that having an essential occupation is a resource for women but not men to renegotiate the division of housework. This is particularly the case when one or both partners can work from home." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Raiber, Klara, Katja Möhring, Mark Visser & Ellen Verbakel (2026): Wage Premium or Wage Penalty? Gendered Long-term Wage Development of Family Caregivers. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 3-25. DOI:10.1177/09500170251348856

Abstract

"This study theoretically and empirically assesses the gendered relationship between family caregiving (excluding regular childcare) and wage development in the Netherlands applying conflict theory, which predicts a wage penalty due to difficulties in combining paid work and care, and enrichment theory, which expects a wage premium because of acquired skills and recognition. Growth curve modelling was used to analyse hourly wages from 19 years of register data combined with information on caregiving episodes, retrospectively collected among a Dutch sample (N = 2659 respondents and 324,940 months). Caregiving was distinguished by have-never cared, current caregivers and past caregivers, as well as by duration and intensity. The results showed that men’s wage growth slightly improved after caregiving stopped and when they provided intensive care. Women’s wage development was slightly weaker after caregiving stopped and when they provided intensive care. Thus, only men benefit from caregiving in terms of their wage growth, not women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Raiber, Klara (2026): Fostering Skills and Relief: Positive Spillover Effects Between Unpaid Caregiving and Paid Work. In: Journal of Aging & Social Policy, Jg. 38, H. 4, S. 754-770. DOI:10.1080/08959420.2025.2561425

Abstract

"With the expected rise in unpaid caregiving, many caregivers will have to combine care with employment. While most research finds negative spillovers between caregiving and employment, it is crucial to understand the factors under which caregiving has positive spillover effects. Analyzing Dutch retrospective data from the Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social science (3,543 caregiving situations of 2,042 caregivers), this study examined how factors from the work environment and the caregiving situation are related to two positive spillovers, namely learned skills from caregiving for paid work and employment being a relief from caregiving. Results from multilevel models show that a working environment with high flexibility compared to no flexibility was related to more skill learning and relief. Further, we found that more understanding of managers and colleagues was related to learning skills, while managers and colleagues knowing about caregiving was linked to feeling relief. More diverse caregiving tasks were associated with more skills learned for paid work and more relief felt. These findings can guide state or firm-based policies to not only prevent negative but also foster positive spillovers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Reiter, Claudia & Sonja Spitzer (2026): When Gender Trumps Skills: Employment Trajectories of Austrian Parents After Their First Birth. In: Comparative Population Studies, Jg. 51, S. 1-22. DOI:10.12765/cpos-2026-01

Abstract

"Increasing the labour market participation of mothers is often seen as a solution to address skill shortages in countries with long child-related career interruptions. However, little is known about the leave-taking behaviour of parents with higher and lower skill levels. This study addresses that gap by examining how employment trajectories after the transition to parenthood vary by gender and skill level in Austria, which has one of the longest parental leave entitlements globally. We focus on understanding whether skill differences shape leave-taking and labour market re-entry, and to what extent they explain the large and persistent gender gaps in parental employment. We use a new dataset that, for the first time, links Austrian administrative data on births and daily labour market activities (2009-2022) with tested skill scores from the OECD’s Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Our main sample includes 5,130 Austrians born between 1942 and 1997. We focus on tested numeracy skills, which are strongly associated with employment and wages, offer a more precise measure of work-relevant skills than formal education, and account for important parts of the gender pay gap. Adopting a life-course perspective, we observe labour market patterns between the ages 20 and 70, and examine the three years before and after the birth of a first child to capture short- and medium-term dynamics. We find clear differences by skill level. Higher-skilled women tend to return to employment more quickly and are more likely to use educational leave to extend their parental leave. Lower-skilled mothers, by contrast, experience longer periods out of the labour force. Among fathers, skill gradients are present as well: higher-skilled men are more likely to take parental leave than their lower-skilled counterparts, though leave uptake remains very low in absolute terms. However, gender trumps skills. On average, mothers take 416 days of paid parental leave following the birth of their first child, while fathers take just nine days. Most mothers remain at home well beyond the period of paid leave, and part-time work is common upon return – regardless of skill level. Our findings suggest that policies aimed at increasing female labour market participation − particularly among the skilled − face structural constraints. In a context of demographic ageing and rising skill shortages, improving access to early childcare and encouraging more balanced leave-taking may be necessary to reduce gender gaps and make better use of existing skills across the workforce." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sander, Sarah (2026): Universal Daycare and Mothers’ Working Lifetime. In: The Economic Journal. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueag031

Abstract

"This paper examines the effects of universal daycare on mothers’ labour force participation, hours worked, full-time employment, and earnings over their working lives. I exploit variation in access created by the roll-out of daycare centres across Denmark, combined with rich administrative data. Daycare availability positively affects participation (2.3%), hours worked (3.1%), and earnings (3.7%) 16 years after the first child. Secondary fertility choices and parental separation appear to mediate these effects. The effects on labour market outcomes are driven by low-educated mothers, suggesting that lack of subsidised childcare is a larger employment barrier for low-educated mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Schütz, Jana (2026): Beliefs about the gender pension gap. In: European Economic Review, Jg. 184. DOI:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2025.105244

Abstract

"I conduct an online survey of 3000 respondents in the United States to examine individuals’ beliefs about the gender pension gap. By including an information provision experiment in which treated respondents are informed about the size of the gender pension gap, I examine whether receiving this information causally affects respondents’ perceptions of the fairness and drivers of the gender pension gap and their support for policies aimed at reducing it. I find that most respondents underestimate the gender pension gap and that treated respondents are less likely to perceive the gender pension gap as fair. In addition, treated respondents perceive the unequal distribution of care work and gender differences in wages as more important drivers of the gap, and their demand for remedial policies such as targeted financial education increases significantly. This increase in policy demand is driven by male respondents and Republicans." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Author. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Shattuck, Rachel M. (2026): Cross-cohort employment differences among U.S. mothers of young children: The role of nonparental childcare. In: Social science research, Jg. 133. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103261

Abstract

"Following increased mothers' employment since the later 20th century, the majority of U.S. mothers now experience employment with children under age three. Most use nonparental childcare (NPC) while employed. NPC can include care provided in childcare centers and preschools, as well as by nannies, babysitters and relatives, and in family childcare homes. Changes since the 1980s to care costs and availability, labor market conditions, family structures, and public assistance policies may result in differences in the predictive relationship between NPC use and employment among late-20th vs. early-21st century mothers. I use National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979) (“Baby-Boomers”) and 1997 (“Millennials”) data to compare monthly likelihood of full-time employment, part-time employment, and employment exit—and how NPC use differently affects these—among mothers of children under three. A hybrid model including within-person and between-person components compares women to themselves at different points in time when they are employed either with or without NPC. NPC use increases full-time employment, and employment stability, for mothers in both cohorts. However, Millennials use NPC more than Baby-Boomers. Furthermore, NPC increases the likelihood of maintaining full-time employment, and transitioning from part-time to full-time employment, by larger magnitudes for Millennials than for Baby-Boomers. Supplementary descriptive analyses show changed care types, increased care costs, and increased nonstandard employment, all of which may contribute to this cross-cohort difference. Results demonstrate how NPC plays a key role in supporting employment within individual women's life courses, and how these effects may differ across different social and historical settings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))

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Siegert, Anja, Rafael Granell & Francisco G. Morillas-Jurado (2026): Telework and the gender pay gap along the wage distribution. In: Journal of Economic Inequality, S. 1-23. DOI:10.1007/s10888-026-09730-y

Abstract

"This paper examines the impact of teleworking on the gender pay gap in France using data from the French Labour Force Survey. The study explores how different frequencies of teleworking—hybrid and exclusive—affect working hours and wages for men and women and considers changes along the wage distribution. We run OLS regressions by gender and conduct an Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition. We extend this approach by using Recentered Influence Functions (RIF) at each decile for the analysis along the wage distribution. Our results show that teleworking increases the number of hours worked for women, leading to a reduction of the gender gap in working hours. However, telework potentially increases the hourly gender pay gap as men are rewarded more than women for teleworking. This pay disadvantage is greatest for women who telework exclusively and at the higher end of the wage distribution. Nevertheless, we find evidence that telework has the potential to reduce the gender pay gap at the lower end of the wage distribution for hybrid working models, where women benefit more than men from telework." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Silliman, Mikko & Juuso Mäkinen (2026): Life-Cycle Effects of Public Childcare: Evidence on Children and Their Parents. (CESifo working paper 12372), München, 102 S.

Abstract

"This paper provides large-scale evidence linking the economic effects of childcare programs to social skills measured in adulthood. We examine Finland's first national public childcare program, and document that it increased parental labor supply - through retirement - while reducing the intergenerational persistence of income. Critically, we leverage Finnish Defence Forces data on the near population of males to show that effects on children's adult income are underlied by lasting effects on social skills. Further, we show that life-cycle cost-effectiveness estimates based on the assumption of constant effects after typical observation windows can considerably overestimate the net costs of public childcare." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sofka, Wolfgang, Christoph Grimpe & Ulrich Kaiser (2026): Gender wage discrimination and the attractiveness of foreign MNC subsidiaries as employers for women. In: Journal of International Business Studies, Jg. 57, H. 2, S. 173-196. DOI:10.1057/s41267-025-00811-0

Abstract

"The article explores the issue of gender wage discrimination, where women are often paid less than men for the same work. This problem is rooted in societal norms and beliefs about gender roles. The study focuses on how foreign multinational corporations (MNCs) might offer better opportunities for rooted discrimination in domestic firms. It investigates whether women who experience gender wage discrimination are more likely to seek employment with foreign MNCs, which might offer fairer wages and more opportunities for advancement. This article uses data from Denmark, covering the years 2002 to 2015, to analyze the job changes of 165,624 female professionals and managers. The researchers use the Kitagawa–Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition to measure gender wage discrimination. This method helps separate the wage gap into parts that can be explained by differences in skills and experience and parts that cannot, indicating discrimination. The study also considers factors like the productivity of domestic firms compared to foreign MNCs and the presence of women in management roles within these companies. The authors conduct interviews with women who have experienced wage discrimination to understand their motivations and preferences when choosing employers. The study finds that women who face higher levels of gender wage discrimination in domestic firms are more likely to seek employment with foreign MNCs. This tendency is stronger in labor markets where foreign MNCs have more women in management roles, signaling a deviation from male-dominated norms. The research finds that foreign MNCs can become attractive employers for women seeking to escape wage discrimination. The authors conclude that understanding women’s preferences and the conditions under which they consider foreign MNCs as attractive employers can help address the challenge of gender-based economic inequality. Future implications include the potential for foreign MNCs to play a significant role in promoting gender equality in the workplace by offering fairer wages and more opportunities for women.This text was initially drafted using artificial intelligence, then reviewed by the author(s) to ensure accuracy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Stainback, Kevin (2026): Organizational accountability and gender segregation: can bureaucratic reforms drive organizational change? In: Social forces, S. 1-23. DOI:10.1093/sf/soag003

Abstract

"Gender segregation is a core indicator of organizational inequality with downstream implications for wages, authority, and career mobility. Its causes and consequences have been studied extensively, yet much less is known about the organizational practices that may reduce it. This study addresses this gap by examining the effects of accountability practices on workplace gender integration. Scholars have identified three key aspects of organizational accountability: setting diversity goals, assigning responsibility, and monitoring and reviewing personnel decisions. These practices are widely believed to be effective; however, surprisingly little empirical research has examined which practices work to reduce inequality. Previous studies have primarily focused on assigning responsibility to a staff position or department (e.g., human resource or diversity manager), with few examining diversity goals or monitoring and reviewing practices. Analyzing a nationally representative panel dataset of British workplaces (2004–2011), this study finds that implementing diversity goals, assigning oversight to a human resource professional, and monitoring and reviewing personnel decisions significantly reduce gender segregation. These effects remain robust across models controlling for other practices theorized to reduce gender segregation, women’s managerial representation, and changes in employment during the Great Recession. These findings underscore how accountability-based bureaucratic reforms can advance workplace integration." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Stertz, Anna M. & Ronit Waismel-Manor (2026): Take it or leave it: how maternal leave duration affects societal perceptions of women in Germany and Israel. In: Community, work & family, S. 1-9. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2026.2621075

Abstract

"This research investigates how the duration of parental leave taken by working mothers influences ‘ideal worker’ and ‘good mother’ norms perceptions in two distinct cultural and policy contexts: Germany (N\u2009=\u2009262; main activity: 65.9% university students, 26.7% paid work) and Israel (N\u2009=\u2009504; main activity: 100% university students, of whom 79.0% also engaged in paid work). In experimental online studies, participants evaluated a fictitious mother based on a vignette. Leave length was experimentally manipulated across four conditions: 4, 6, 12, and 36 months (the latter only in Germany). The results yielded similar trends in both countries. Mothers are more likely to be viewed as better parents if they take the longest leave offered, and as better workers if they take short periods of leave. Nevertheless, our results show that in both countries, the decision to take parental leave of any given length does not substantially harm evaluations toward working mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Stinebrickner, Todd, Ralph Stinebrickner & Paul Sullivan (2026): Job Tasks, Task-Specific Work Experience, and the Gender Wage Gap. In: Journal of Human Capital, Jg. 20, H. 1, S. 1-34. DOI:10.1086/738042

Abstract

"Taking advantage of unique longitudinal task data from the Berea Panel Study, we provide a new ex-amination of the gender wage gap, paying particular attention to gender differences in types of work experience. Access to longitudinal individual-level job task information, along with unique time allo-cation information, allows us to produce quantitative measures of current and past tasks. We provide the first empirical evidence on gender differences in time spent on tasks, and show that gender differ-ences in task-specific experience, in particular high-skilled information experience, are important for predicting the widening of the gender wage gap over the career." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Strazdins, Lyndall, Tinh Doan, Liana Leach, Jianghong Li, Matthias Pollmann-Schult & Till Kaiser (2026): Ceilings: Gender Inequality in Hours, Earnings and Health. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 182. DOI:10.1007/s11205-026-03820-0

Abstract

"One reason gender earning gaps persist is that well-paid jobs presume long work hours, and these are incompatible with family care. Long hours also harm health, and the risks may increase for workers with care and domestic workloads, adding a gendered health penalty. Using representative, longitudinal data from Australia and Germany (144,430–153,659 observations for HILDA and SOEP surveys, respectively, 2002–2022), we model the interconnections between hours and health among men and women aged 25–64 years. Our models include hours spent on care and domestic work, to estimate the points at which working more gains earnings but incurs risks for health and how this may differ by gender. The results show that average health ceilings mirror standard work hours (38 to 43 h per week) in both countries, but this masks wide gender differences. Gender stratified models reveal that long work hours are relatively less harmful for men compared to women, and as work hours lengthen, the penalty to women’s physical and mental health increases. We further show how these differential health harms are linked to extra time spent on family care and domestic work. Our study extends theory on how gender inequality is maintained in organisations and in the labour market, and the need for policy action to limit long work hours." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Tabor, Jaclyn A., Cassie Mead, Jamie Oslawski-Lopez & Rebecca K. Grady (2026): Division of Labor Over the Life Course: Structural or Symbolic Pressures? In: Journal of Marriage and Family, Jg. 88, H. 2, S. 425-441. DOI:10.1111/jomf.70023

Abstract

"Objective: Do structural or symbolic pressures, as measured by work-family transitions, play a greater role in determining the gendered division of household labor? Background: Scholars explain gendered divisions of household labor using structural (i.e., resource allocation; time availability) and symbolic explanations (i.e., gender as a social institution; doing gender). We concurrently tested these theories through the lens of major work–family transitions, which have been shown to impact household labor in previous research. Method: We used two nationally representative, longitudinal datasets: The Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) and National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) to understand how work-family transitions impact male and female partners' household labor hours, as well as the proportion of housework performed by female partners. To do this, we used fixed effects models (PSID), lagged dependent variable models, and first difference change score models (NSFH). Results: We found that parenthood and work transitions, transitions that exert structural pressure, were associated with female partners' proportion of housework. On the other hand, the transition from cohabitation to marriage and relationship tenure, measures that are more symbolic in nature, did not significantly impact male or female partners' household labor. Conclusion: Overall, the structural pressures underlying work-family transitions appear to play a larger role in determining the division of household labor as compared to symbolic pressures." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Tallås Alhzén, Malin (2026): Parental leave quotas and workplace spillovers. (Working papers / Institute for Evaluation of Labour Market and Education Policy 2026,05), Uppsala, 52 S.

Abstract

"This paper studies how parental leave quotas may foster a more gender-equal division of parental responsibilities by increasing fathers' uptake of leave beyond the reserved amount. Specifically, the paper examines whether the introduction and expansion of 30-days parental leave quotas in Sweden generated spillover effects on male coworkers' leave-taking behavior. Using rich population register data and a regression discontinuity design, I find no evidence that the first quota introduced in 1995 affected male coworkers' uptake of parental leave. In contrast, the 2002 expansion of the quota led to a statistically significant increase of almost nine additional days of parental leave taken by male coworkers. The increase primarily occurred early in the child's life. As such, the increased uptake can be expected to contribute to a more equal division of parental responsibilities also in the long run. The absence of spillovers following the initial reform is consistent with the first quota being more distorting in nature and offering limited information about longer parental leave spells. The findings underscore the importance of societal context and policy design in shaping behavioral responses to parental leave reforms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Virtanen, Marianna, Katalin Gémes, Kristin Farrants, Jakob Bergström, Niklas Gustafsson, Laura Peutere, Ellenor Mittendorfer-Rutz & Kristina Alexanderson (2026): Labour market patterns among women and men following the uptake of their first parental leave benefit in Sweden. In: Scientific Reports, Jg. 16, H. 1. DOI:10.1038/s41598-026-35960-1

Abstract

"This study identified long-term labour market patterns after taking the first parental leave benefit among women and men in Sweden and the socio-demographic, economic, and health-related characteristics among the identified patterns. We conducted a prospective cohort study, based on nationwide register microdata, including all women (N = 43,959) and men (N = 43,514) who had their first parental leave benefit uptake in 2010. Sequence analysis was used to explore their labour market patterns over 9 years after parental leave. We identified six labour market clusters for women: ‘ Quick return to employment/studies’ (32%), ‘ Ongoing employment/studies ’ (24%), ‘ Slow return to employment/studies’ (21%), ‘ Weak labour market attachment’ (11%), ‘ Increasing sickness absence/disability pension’ (9%) and ‘ Death/emigration/retirement’ (2%). Among men, there were five clusters: ‘ Ongoing employment/studies ’ (74%), ‘ Weak labour market attachment ’ (13%), ‘ Parental leave ’ (7%), ‘ Increasing sickness absence/disability pension ’ (4%), and ‘ Death/emigration/retirement ’ (2%). Although most were economically active at the end of follow-up, among both women and men, marginalized labour market patterns were characterized by socioeconomic disadvantage and prior morbidity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Warren, Tracey, Luis Torres, Clare Lyonette & Ruth Tarlo (2026): Carrying the Domestic Burden of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Gender, Class and the Domestic Division of Labour. In: Sociology, Jg. 60, H. 3, S. 555-577. DOI:10.1177/00380385251380773

Abstract

"This article explores gender and class inequalities in the domestic division of labour in the UK. Inequalities in housework and caring are important: they shape who can enter the paid workforce and on what terms, impacting career progression, financial security, work–life balance and well-being. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, we knew women shouldered the heaviest burden of housework and caring, but far less was known about class variation among workers. The pandemic intensified housework and caring but it also provided opportunities for a re-evaluation of established practices. Drawing on secondary analysis of data from working-age employees in the UK Household Longitudinal Study, we find gender remained pivotal in shaping domestic working and childcaring, but women and men were living differently classed pandemic lives. The article contributes to interlinking sociological debates about the unpaid essential work within the home, women and men’s working lives during times of turbulence and class inequalities therein." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Yildirim, Sinan (2026): A different outcome for unemployment and labour force participation: the discouraged female worker by male unemployment. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 33, H. 5, S. 753-757. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2024.2389346

Abstract

"This study analyzes the link between labour force participation and unemployment over the long term in Belgium. Evaluating a long-term relationship is crucial because the unemployment rate is frequently used in both empirical study and policy. ARDL co-integration analyses are all performed for young age groups, aggregate, gender-specific series. The results show that there is no evidence to support an additional worker effect for any gender category. For the female labour force aged 15 to 24, the discouraging female worker effect by male unemployment is discovered. This situation could be caused by constraints like having to take care of children and household chores, getting paid less for doing the same work, and the prevalence of men in organizational hierarchies. Women may therefore think that it will be more difficult for them to find employment than for men, who typically have better opportunities. Therefore, women may believe that their own job search has become more challenging if the male unemployment rate rises. Politicians should consider this effect, which will cause the rate of unemployment among women to be underestimated during recessions and overestimated during expansions in the economy. In addition, it is important to encourage young women to join the labour force when the rate of unemployment for men increases." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Zhao, Qiongda & Zhuo Zhang (2026): Unveiling hidden impacts: heterogeneous effects of extended parental leave on mothers’ labour outcomes*. In: Applied Economics, S. 1-16. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2026.2624050

Abstract

"This paper examines the impact of extended parental leave benefits in Canada on mothers’ earnings following childbirth. We exploit a sharp policy cut-off and implement a regression discontinuity design combined with a difference-in-differences approach (RD-DD), comparing mothers who gave birth shortly before and after the reform. We find that the extension of cash benefits leads to a reduction in mothers’ earnings in the short run, reflecting delayed returns to work. In contrast, medium- and long-run effects on average earnings are small and statistically insignificant. These null mean effects, however, conceal substantial heterogeneity. Quantile regression estimates show that extending cash benefits without extending job protection generates sizable earnings losses among high-earning mothers, whereas extending job protection substantially mitigates these losses and yields positive effects for middle-earning mothers. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of job protection in parental leave design, suggesting that it helps high-earning mothers maintain career continuity while providing greater stability for middle earners." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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-Wysocka, Katarzyna Bech & Magdalena Smyk (2025): Heuristics and Signals: Experimental Evidence on Information and Wage Discrimination. (GRAPE working paper / Group for Research in Applied Economics 106), Warszawa, 27 S.

Abstract

"Statistical discrimination theory explains wage differences between demographic groups by referring to differences in group averages or heuristic-based decision-making. This study investigates whether providing employers with accurate information about individual productivity affects wage-setting practices. We replicate a labor market scenario in which employers determine wages based on perceived productivity differences between male and female workers. Our experimental findings suggest that statistical discrimination influences initial wage decisions, but access to individual performance data reduces reliance on group-based heuristics. The dominant strategy when the actual information about performance is to share the resources according to contribution. We observe that in tasks where women statistically outperform, higher-scoring individuals tend to receive slightly less than their proportional contribution, whereas in tasks where men perform better, they tend to receive slightly more than their contribution. Furthermore, we show that with only statistical information, significant gender-based wage discrimination aligned with performance stereotypes occurs, but there is no gender discrimination under full information about performance. Our results contribute to the broader discussion on labour market inequalities and approaches to reducing statistical discrimination." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Acosta-Ballesteros, Juan, María Del Pilar Osorno-Del Rosal & Olga María Rodríguez-Rodríguez (2025): Gender occupational segregation: a new approach to quantifying the effect of educational segregation. In: Applied Economics, Jg. 57, H. 57, S. 9713-9727. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2024.2423067

Abstract

"This article analyses the impact of educational segregation on the gender gap in the probability of working in a gendered or gender-balanced occupation, which is our measure of occupational segregation. Specifically, our methodology allows quantifying two different effects of education on this gap: one due to girls and boys choosing different educational options (presorting), and the other due to men and women with the same education entering the same or different occupations (postsorting). Using a sample of university graduates from Spain, a country with a highly segregated labor market, we conclude that the gender composition of education and occupation are strongly related. However, the greater presence of women in female-dominated jobs is not only due to them choosing female-dominated degrees, but also due to many women from gender-balanced, and even some from male-dominated programs, working in female-dominated occupations. Thus, reducing educational segregation does not seem to be enough to fight against occupational segregation. It is also necessary to guarantee that men and women enjoy the same opportunities in the labour market, removing discrimination practices, and to ensure that both, workers and employers, do not make decisions based on gender role expectations or stereotypes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Adams, Abi, Kotaro Hara, Kristy Milland & Chris Callison-Burch (2025): The Gender Wage Gap in an Online Labor Market: The Cost of Interruptions. In: The Review of Economics and Statistics, Jg. 107, H. 1, S. 55-64. DOI:10.1162/rest_a_01282

Abstract

"This paper analyzes gender differences in working patterns and wages on Amazon Mechanical Turk, a popular online labor platform. Using information on 2 million tasks, we find no gender differences in task selection nor experience. Nonetheless, women earn 20% less per hour on average. Gender differences in working patterns are a significant driver of this wage gap. Women are more likely to interrupt their working time on the platform with consequences for their task completion speed. A follow-up survey shows that the gender differences in working patterns and hourly wages are concentrated among workers with children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © MIT Press Journals) ((en))

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Albanesi, Stefania (2025): Changing Business Cycles: The Role of Women's Employment. In: American Economic Journal. Macroeconomics, Jg. 17, H. 4, S. 345-390. DOI:10.1257/mac.20210138

Abstract

"Women's labor force participation in the United States rose rapidly until the mid-1990s when it flattened out. I examine the impact of this change in trend on aggregate business cycles with a quantitative model that incorporates gender differences. I show that the rise in women's participation played a substantial role in the Great Moderation and not allowing for gender differences leads to incorrect inference on its causes. The subsequent slowdown in women's participation played a substantial role in jobless recoveries and reduced aggregate hours and output growth in expansions, worsening aggregate economic performance in the United States." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Albrecht, James, Per-Anders Edin, Raquel Fernandez, Jiwon Lee, Peter Thoursie & Susan Vroman (2025): Parental Leave: Economic Incentives and Cultural Change. (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20541), London, 57 S.

Abstract

"The distribution of parental leave uptake and childcare activities continues to conform to traditional gender roles. In 2002, with the goal of increasing gender equality, Sweden added a second “daddy month,” i.e., an additional month of pay-related parental leave reserved exclusively for each parent. This policy increased men’s parental leave uptake and decreased women’s, thereby increasing men’s share. To understand how various factors contributed to these outcomes, we develop and estimate a quantitative model of the household in which preferences towards parental leave respond to peer behavior. We distinguish households by the education of the parents and ask the model to match key features of the parental leave distribution before and after the reform by gender and household type (the parents’ education). We find that changed incentives and, especially, changed social norms played an important role in generating these outcomes whereas changed wage parameters, including the future wage penalty associated with different lengths of parental leave uptake, were minor contributors. We then use our model to evaluate three counterfactual policies designed to increase men’s share of parental leave and conclude that giving each parent a non-transferable endowment of parental leave or only paying for the length of time equally taken by each parent would both dramatically increase men’s share whereas decreasing childcare costs has almost no effect." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Alon, Titan, Sena Coskun & Jane Olmstead‑Rumsey (2025): Gender Divergence in Sectors of Work. (IAB-Discussion Paper 11/2025), Nürnberg, 44 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2511

Abstract

"Im letzten halben Jahrhundert kam es in vielen Bereichen des Arbeitsmarktes, darunter Arbeitszeit, Einkommen und Berufe, zu einer weitgehenden Annäherung der Geschlechter. Diese Studie zeigt jedoch, dass sich die Beschäftigungssektoren von Männern und Frauen im gleichen Zeitraum tatsächlich auseinanderentwickelt haben. Wir zerlegen den Anstieg der sektoralen Segregation in drei Faktoren: veränderte Präferenzen, Diskriminierung und Technologien. Veränderte Beschäftigungspräferenzen verheirateter Frauen sind der wichtigste Faktor und erklären 59% des Anstiegs der Segregation. Diese veränderten Präferenzen verringern auch die geschlechtsspezifische Einkommenslücke, da die von Frauen geschätzten nicht‑lohnbezogenen Annehmlichkeiten in höher bezahlten Sektoren zunehmend an Bedeutung gewinnen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Andrews, Rhys (2025): Social Equity in Municipally Owned Corporations: Do Women in the Boardroom Make a Difference to the Gender Pay Gap? In: Public Administration, Jg. 103, H. 4, S. 979-991. DOI:10.1111/padm.13045

Abstract

"Representative bureaucracy theory posits that the presence of less-advantaged social groups in public leadership positions is an important driver of social equity among the recipients of public services and the public servants who provide them. To evaluate whether active representation can lead to improvements in social equity within arms-length public service organizations, this article presents an analysis of the relationship between women in the boardroom and the gender pay gap in 102 large municipally owned corporations (MOCs) in England for a 6-year period (2017–2022). The findings suggest that MOCs led by female chief executive officers (CEOs) have a lower pay gap between male and female employees. The presence of more women directors on MOC boards is also negatively related to the pay gap, especially in MOCs led by male CEOs. The findings highlight the importance of board gender representation to address social equity in arms-length public service organizations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bae, Hannah, Katherine Meckel & Maggie Shi (2025): Dependent insurance coverage and parental job lock: Evidence from the Affordable Care Act. In: Journal of Public Economics, Jg. 248. DOI:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105439

Abstract

"Coverage for dependents is a standard feature of employer-sponsored insurance. While prior work shows that employees trade off job mobility for their own coverage, less is known about the intra-family spillovers of dependent coverage on parental labor supply. We study this question using a large panel of employer-based insurance claims that links dependent enrollment to a proxy for parental job retention. We use a regression discontinuity design that exploits a sharp change in the duration of dependent eligibility by birth month under the Affordable Care Act. We find that additional dependent insurance eligibility increases both dependent take-up and parental job retention. This “job lock” effect is strongest among parents more likely to be on the margin of a job exit, for families that place higher value on dependent coverage, and employees of firms offering a broader range of insurance options." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author(s).Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Bahn, Dorothée, Christian Bredemeier & Falko Juessen (2025): Household chores, taxes, and the labor-supply elasticities of women and men. (Ruhr economic papers 1177), Essen, 46 S. DOI:10.4419/96973362

Abstract

"We study how the division of household chores and individual preferences contribute to gender differences in labor supply elasticities and examine the implications for optimal taxation. In a model of labor supply in dual-earner households, we show that elasticities and optimal income tax rates depend jointly on gender and the within-household allocation of chores. Using PSID data, we find that chore division substantially affects labor supply elasticities, whereas gender per se plays a smaller role. We then evaluate how well simple, feasible tax rules can approximate the optimal within-household tax structure. Gender-based taxation captures a sizable share of the potential efficiency gains, but gender-neutral rules with realistic levels of progressivity perform better." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bajka, Scherwin M., Benita Combet, Patrick Emmenegger & Sabine Seufert (2025): Skill requirements versus workplace characteristics: exploring the drivers of occupational gender segregation. In: Socio-economic review, Jg. 23, H. 4, S. 2065-2086. DOI:10.1093/ser/mwaf034

Abstract

"What role do skill requirements play in gendered occupational preferences? Previous research has emphasized workplace characteristics such as salaries and family-friendly work hours. Less attention has been paid to skill requirements, even though they are an important part of job descriptions and serve as reference points for individuals’ assessment of their suitability for occupations. Using a choice experiment among Swiss adolescents who are in the process of choosing their vocational training occupation, this article demonstrates that women and men have surprisingly similar preferences for workplace characteristics. In contrast, skill requirements are better predictors of gender differences in occupational preferences. We find that technical skills are critical in explaining gendered occupational preferences, with occupations that rely more heavily on new technologies attracting fewer women. At the same time, both genders prefer occupations that emphasize social interactions, suggesting that the prominent ‘people’ versus ‘things’ distinction does not adequately capture gendered occupational preferences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bamieh, Omar & Lennart Ziegler (2025): Can Wage Transparency Alleviate Gender Sorting in the Labor Market? In: Economic Policy, Jg. 40, H. 122, S. 401-426. DOI:10.1093/epolic/eiae025

Abstract

"A large share of the gender wage gap can be attributed to occupation and employer choices. If workers are not well informed about these pay differences, increasing wage transparency might alleviate the gender gap. We test this hypothesis by examining the impact of mandatory wage postings. In 2011, Austria introduced a policy that requires firms to provide a minimum wage offer in job postings. To compare the pay prospects of vacancies before and after the introduction, we predict posted wages using detailed occupation-firm cells, which explain about 75 percent of the variation in wage postings. While we estimate a substantial gender gap of 15 log points, mandatory wage postings do not affect gender sorting into better-paying occupations and firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Barigozzi, Francesca, Natalia Montinari, Giovanni Righetto & Alessandro Tampieri (2025): Beyond Human Capital: Mobility intentions, IT skills, and the Early Gender Wage Gap. (Quaderni - working paper DSE / Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, Department of Economics 1212), Bologna, 34 S.

Abstract

"In most countries, women systematically outperform men in academic achievement across fields of study. Yet within a year of graduation, they earn less, face lower employment rates, and are more likely to work part-time. If human capital were the sole determinant of pay, this pattern would be difficult to reconcile. We address this puzzle by extending the statistical discrimination framework 'a la Phelps (1972) to include not only human capital but also additional components of productivity, such as IT skills and mobility intentions -the willingness to travel or relocate for work -which might capture candidates' technological proficiency and adaptability. Using rich microdata from the AlmaLaurea survey of master's graduates from the University of Bologna (2015–2022), we show that while human capital alone predicts no gender wage gap in favor of men, combining it with mobility intentions reproduces the early wage disadvantage observed for women in Economics and Engineering. We further show that IT skills -an observable CV trait constructed from multiple IT-skill items- reduce the residual gender wage gap, especially in Engineering. Our findings highlight the importance of complementing human capital with field-specific preference and skill traits to explain-and potentially address-early gender wage gaps." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Barnes, Spencer (2025): Within-firm job description wage gaps: The implications for financial performance. In: Australian journal of management, S. 1-31. DOI:10.1177/03128962251372865

Abstract

"We study within-firm and job-type wage gaps arising from words in job descriptions using a natural language processing technique (word2vec) on proprietary US job-level wage data from publicly traded companies spanning two decades. Analyzing nearly half a million job descriptions, we find that stereotypically feminine descriptions correspond to lower wages compared to masculine ones, as they require fewer years of experience and less education. At the firm level, wider job description wage gaps—where masculine descriptions earn more—are associated with higher firm value. A difference-in-differences design around Executive Order 13672 supports a plausibly causal interpretation, and the effect is strongest in politically sensitive firms. The wage premium for masculine descriptions is linked to a higher share of skilled jobs, greater productivity, and increased investment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Battaglia, Emily & Jessica H. Brown (2025): The labor market effects of pregnancy accommodation laws. In: Journal of Population Economics, Jg. 38, H. 4. DOI:10.1007/s00148-025-01141-z

Abstract

"Pregnancy accommodation laws require “reasonable accommodations” for pregnant workers, i.e., sitting down, lifting restrictions, and additional bathroom breaks. Although these laws may make it easier for women to remain employed during pregnancy, as a mandated benefit, they may also discourage employers from hiring employees who may become pregnant. We estimate the effect of pregnancy accommodation laws on labor market outcomes for women of childbearing age in order to determine whether these laws lead employers to discriminate against young women in hiring. Using a difference-in-differences design comparing women’s labor market outcomes across states throughout the staggered roll-out of thirteen state pregnancy accommodation laws from 2013 to 2016, we find no impact on female employment and wages. These null results are robust to a triple differences design that uses men’s labor market outcomes as an additional control. Subgroupanalyses of groups most likely to be affected, including those with less education, in more physically intense occupations, and married without children, also show no consistent impact of the new laws. These results suggest that this group-specific mandated benefit did not lead to discrimination in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Batz-Barbarich, Cassondra, Nicole Strah & Farhan Masud Ahmed (2025): Do Words Matter? The Impact of Communal and Agentic Language on Women’s Application to Job Opportunities. In: Journal of Personnel Psychology, Jg. 24, H. 3, S. 135-147. DOI:10.1027/1866-5888/a000364

Abstract

": Communal and agentic goal affordances predict women’s perceived fit in and pursuit of work environments. However, an organization’s ability to influence women’s perceptions and pursuit of roles via language signals in job advertisements is unclear. This field study examines the impact of communal (vs. agentic) language in job advertisements ( N = 330 ads; 242 organizations) on attitudes and behaviors of actual job seekers. Results indicate that some agentic and communal cues influence behavior such that the former leads to a smaller proportion of female applicants, whereas the latter leads to a greater proportion. However, results became nonsignificant after controlling for industry gender representation. Our results explore the utility of experimentally explored interventions to determine their influence on real applicants’ behaviors." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Hogrefe Verlag) ((en))

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Berglund, Tomas, Jørgen Svalund, Tuomo Alasoini, Katrín Ólafsdóttir, Stine Rasmussen, Johan Røed Steen & Pekka Varje (2025): Gendered Labor Markets and Occupational Change in the Nordics. In: Nordic journal of working life studies, S. 1-23. DOI:10.18291/njwls.160118

Abstract

"Recent research on changes in the occupational structure in the Nordic region points in different directions. Some studies indicate upgrading of jobs with better quality, advanced skill requirements, and higher wages, while others show tendencies toward polarization in the skill distribution of jobs. The present article finds gendered patterns of upgrading or polarization in the occupational structure in the Nordic countries in the years 2012–2019. The changes in the occupational structure have been more beneficial for women, who increasingly occupy higher-level positions. Especially, the public sector has served as a vehicle for high-level female positions. While previous research has stressed technological change, especially digitalization as the primary driver of change, this article argues that developments in the public sector also need to be considered to fully understand occupational change in the Nordic region." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Berlanda, Andrea, Elisabetta Lodigiani & Lorenzo Rocco (2025): Immigration and Adult Children's Care for Elderly Parents: Evidence from Western Europe. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17984), Bonn, 41 S.

Abstract

"In this paper, we use the Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), complemented with register data on the share of the foreign population in the European regions, to examine the effects of migration on the level of informal care provided by children to their senior parents. Our main results show that migration decreases informal care among daughters with a university degree, while it increases the provision of informal care among daughters with low-to-medium levels of education. Viceversa, migration has practically no effect on sons’ care provision who remain little involved in care activities. These results depend on the combination of two supply effects. First, migration increases the supply of domestic and personal services, making formal care more affordable and available. Second, as immigrants compete with low-to-medium-educated native workers, while improve the labor market opportunities of the better educated, the supply of informal care can increase among the less educated daughters and decrease among the more educated." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Biasi, Paola, Maria De Paola & Francesca Gioia (2025): When Mothers Out-Earn Fathers: Effects on Fathers' Decisions to Take Paternity and Parental Leave. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17601), Bonn, 36 S.

Abstract

"This study investigates the influence of the male breadwinner norm on fathers' decisions regarding childcare responsibilities. We study the complex interplay between economic factors and gender norms in shaping the division of household labor within families by analyzing the impact a breadwinning mother has on fathers' choices regarding paternity leave (fully subsidized) and parental leave (partially or not subsidized). We exploit administrative data, provided by the Italian National Security Institute (INPS), including demographic and working characteristics of both parents together with information on the use of paternity and parental leave by fathers in the 2013-2023 period. We find that, in line with the "doing gender" hypothesis, when the leave is fully subsidized, as for paternity leave, fathers are less likely to engage in childcare when their wives earn more than they do. In contrast, this dynamic does not apply in cases of parental leave, where the economic costs of aligning with the gender norm are substantial. The effects we find are robust when replacing the actual probability of there being an out-earning mother with the potential probability and are amplified by the salience of the gender identity norm." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Biasi, Paola & Maria De Paola (2025): The Role of Parental Leave Policies in Mitigating Child Penalties: Insights from Italy. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 253. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2025.112355

Abstract

"This study examines child penalties for mothers and fathers in Italy by using novel administrative data. Relying on an event study approach, we find that childbirth affects mothers' earnings negatively, while fathers' earnings remain largely unaffected. However, when leave allowances are included in earnings, the child penalty for women nearly disappears in the year of childbirth and drops by more than half in the following year. Subsequently mothers’ earnings quickly return to pre-birth levels, but never catch up to fathers' earnings, which follow an upward trajectory, increasing by approximately 46% seven years after childbirth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Blackwell, Ian & Rebecca Carter Dillon (2025): Supporting men as fathers: the value of a UK community dads’ project during the COVID-19 pandemic. In: Community, work & family, S. 1-22. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2025.2575164

Abstract

"This paper presents a study of a community dads’ project during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were gathered via a questionnaire, semi-structured interviews and by attending eleven on-line Conversation Cafés. Men described how the project supported and affirmed their fathering practices as they were able to speak with other father figures about their challenges, to celebrate the rewards of parenting, and to socialise with others. Participants described how their confidence was enhanced and their identity as a father was validated through successful solo parenting activities, opportunities to bond with their child, by creating shared memories, and by being playful and physically active. While the community dads’ project offered welcoming and inclusive spaces for father figures to interact with their children and other dads, we note how these ‘dads only’ settings can be locations where mothers can be ‘othered’ as fretful and fussy by some individuals. While highlighting the need to be alert to the potential for such initiatives to become spaces for problematic counter-identification with the maternal, this research concludes that non-judgemental, community-based initiatives can nurture and strengthen father–child relationships, promote caring masculinities, fortify progressive fathering identities and encourage peer validation amongst fathers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Blau, Francine D. (2025): Gender Inequality in the Labor Market: Continuing Progress? In: ILR review, Jg. 78, H. 2, S. 275-303. DOI:10.1177/00197939241308844

Abstract

"This article examines the trends in women ’s economic outcomes in the United States, focusing primarily on labor force participation, occupational attainment, and the gender wage gap. Considerable progress was made on all dimensions prior to the 1990s followed by a slowing or stalling of gains thereafter, with a plateauing of female labor force participation trends and a slowing of women’s occupational and wage convergence with men. The author considers the likelihood that progress in narrowing gender gaps will resume in these areas, and concludes it is unlikely without policy intervention. She then considers new policy initiatives to address work–family issues and labor market discrimination that may help to increase female labor force participation and narrow gender inequities in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bohnet, Iris, Oliver P. Hauser & Ariella S. Kristal (2025): Can gender and race dynamics in performance appraisals be disrupted? The case of social influence. In: Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Jg. 235. DOI:10.1016/j.jebo.2025.107032

Abstract

"We document gender and race dynamics in performance evaluations in a multi-national company, examining the impacts of a feature of the performance appraisal process: managers’ knowledge of employees’ self-evaluations. Generally, (White) women were rated higher than men and people of color were rated lower than White employees. Women of color gave themselves the lowest self-ratings. When self-evaluations were unavailable due to a quasi-exogenous shock, manager and self-ratings were less correlated. However, gender and race gaps remained unchanged as managers anchored on previous years’ ratings. Based onsuggestive evidence, women of color without an employment history benefitted from their self-ratings not being shared." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Bover, Olympia, Nezih Guner, Yuliya Kulikova, Alessandro Ruggieri & Carlos Sanz (2025): Family-Friendly Policies and Fertility: What Firms Have to Do With It? (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20411), London, 67 S.

Abstract

"Family-friendly policies aim to help women balance work and family life, encouraging them to participate in the labor market. How effective are such policies in increasing fertility? We answer this question using a search model of the labor market where firms make hiring, promotion, and firing decisions, taking into account how these decisions affect workers' fertility incentives and labor force participation decisions. We estimate the model using administrative data from Spain, a country with very low fertility and a highly regulated labor market. We use the model to study family-friendly policies and demonstrate that firms' reactions result in a trade-off: policies that increase fertility reduce women's participation in the labor market and lower their lifetime earnings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bratsberg, Bernt & Elena Stancanelli (2025): Gender norms and partners' joint retirement decisions: learning from a Norwegian reform. (Paris-Jourdan Science Economiques. Working paper 2025-31), Paris, 48 S.

Abstract

"We argue that gender norms may shape partners’ joint retirement decision. We study a 2011 pension reform in Norway, which incentivized postponing retirement for employees of many private sector firms. Using Norwegian register data, we construct population samples of older dual-earner couples in which only one partner was eligible for the reform, and link them to their mothers’ employment status when partners were young, to capture gender norms. Taking an event-study differences-in-differences approach, we find significant employment effects for the partner directly affected by the reform, and heterogeneous spillover effects for the other partner. In particular, women with an employed mother-in-law, but not those with a stay-home mother-inlaw, increase their employment, if their husband does so, due to the reform. In contrast, men with a stay-at-home mother are more likely to postpone retirement if their wife does so, following the reform." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brenøe, Anne Ardila, Urša Krenk, Andreas Steinhauer & Josef Zweimüller (2025): How Do Firms Respond to Parental Leave Absences? (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20140), London, 42 S.

Abstract

"How do firms adjust their labor demand when a female employee takes temporary leave after childbirth? Using Austrian administrative data, we compare firms with and without a birth event and exploit policy reforms that significantly altered leave durations. We find that (i) firms adjust hiring, employment, and wages around leave periods, but these effects fade quickly; (ii) adjustments differ sharply by gender, reflecting strong gender segregation within firms; (iii) longer leave entitlements extend actual leave absences but have only short-term effects; and (iv) there is no impact on firm closure up to five years after birth." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Broadway, Barbara & Guyonne Kalb (2025): The Effect of Separation on Poverty and Employment. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 18343), Bonn, 75 S.

Abstract

"Using 2001–2021 HILDA survey data, this paper estimates how separation or divorce affects poverty and employment trajectories over five years after the event. A difference-in-differences approach compares separated individuals with couples who stayed together, accounting for recent and long-term labour market history prior to separation. Women with preschool children face a 19.9 percentage point higher poverty risk in the first year, which fades within three years. Women with older or no children experience smaller but longer-lasting poverty increases. Pre-separation employment strongly moderates effects: non-employed women face much higher poverty risks than employed women who have similar poverty risks to men. Men's poverty impacts are smaller and shorter-lived. Separation barely changes women's employment but slightly reduces men's employment, especially those with preschool children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Böheim, René, David Pichler & Christine Zulehner (2025): Gendered labour market dynamics across generations: Parental and local determinants of the daugther-son pay gap. (Working paper / Department of Economics, Johannes Kepler Universität of Linz 2025-05-00), Linz, 29 S.

Abstract

"We examine how parental and local factors shape the gender pay gap between daughters and sons. Maternal labor market attachment significantly reduces gender disparities as it increases daughters' earnings in adulthood relative to that of sons. We find that maternal employment has minimal effects on pre-parenthood earnings gaps. However, it substantially mitigates post-parenthood disparities as daughters return to the labour market more quickly after childbirth. Paternal employment in manufacturing and construction is linked to larger gender pay gaps and lower likelihoods of sons taking paternity leave. At the municipal level, higher female employment rates and education levels are associated with narrower gender gaps, whereas conservative norms and manufacturing employment exacerbate them." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cammu, Nola & Stéfanie André (2025): A chip off the old block? Perceptions of intergenerational role modelling through paired depth interviews with fathers and adult sons. In: Community, work & family, S. 1-21. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2025.2584088

Abstract

"During the last few decades, caregiving by fathers has experienced an upsurge in scholarly attention. Although the Netherlands has taken policy measures to enhance work-care equality, a more equal division of work and caregiving is not evident in practice. To better understand the discrepancy between work-care attitudes and work-care behaviour, this paper focuses on the question of who adult sons see as ‘role models’ in their work-care attitudes and behaviour. Fathers and their adult sons (N = 32) were paired depth interviewed about how their work-care attitudes and behaviour are passed down through the generations and how they are influenced by their environment. Three main themes emerged from our data: role modelling as indeterminate; role modelling as dispersed; and the importance of evolved and changing contexts. Fathers draw from a ‘palette’ of dispersed role models to construct their work-care behaviour in accordance with what is (or was) feasible for them and their environment at a given moment in time. In addition, our findings contribute to methodological knowledge of the strengths and limitations of paired depth interviewing as a qualitative research method." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Caparrós Ruiz, Antonio (2025): Gender wage gap among highly educated workers: some evidence from Spain. In: Journal of Economic Studies, Jg. 52, H. 6, S. 1171-1188. DOI:10.1108/jes-06-2024-0371

Abstract

"Purpose: The study aims to estimate wage models controlled for sample selection bias and apply the traditional Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition to examine the genderwage gap. Design/methodology/Approach: This research provides new evidence concerning the drivers of the gender pay gap for highly educated workers in Spain. Findings: The results show the existence of empirical evidence about the presence of the gender wage gap among tertiary-educated workers. An interesting conclusion is that holding a master’s degree hasa positive impact since it diminishes the unexplained component of the gender pay gap. Research limitations/implications: The survey used only analyses the labor insertion of tertiary-educated workers and its temporal scope does not allow us to examine the evolution of the gender wage gap throughout their careers. Social implications: The findings indicate that there is room for the implementation of policies aimed at diminishing gender inequality in the labor market even for highly educated workers, which could complement the current Spanish labor legislation regulating the gender pay gap in firms. Originality/value: This paper bridges two bodies of the economic literature: human capital returns and the gender wage gap. The data used represent a contribution to the economic literature." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Caplin, Andrew, Søren Leth-Petersen & Christopher Tonetti (2025): Beliefs and Realities of Work and Care After Childbirth. (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20423), London, 32 S.

Abstract

"Models of female labor supply routinely assume that women have accurate expectations about post-birth employment, but little is known about whether this assumption holds. We use a 2019 state-contingent survey of 11,000 Danish women linked to administrative data to compare pre-birth beliefs to realized outcomes. Mothers accurately anticipate long-run return to work but systematically overestimate how soon it will occur. Miscalibration stems from two belief errors—about partner leave and own labor supply—which interact and persist even among second-time mothers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Checchi, Daniele, Daniel Kreisman & Cecilia García-Peñalosa (2025): The Evolution of Hours Worked and the Gender Wage Gap: Theory and Evidence from Four Countries. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 18265), Bonn, 36 S.

Abstract

"We consider the contribution of the intensive margin of labor supply (hours worked above zero) to the gender wage gap across four economies (Germany, France, US, UK) over a long time-horizon. We first build a model in which firms offer two wage contracts – one that pays a fixed wage but allows workers to choose their preferred number of hours up to “full time”, and a second in which wages are relative to imperfectly observable productivity but hours can be limitless. The former includes part- and full-time work, while the latter represents a class of workers who often must supply very long hours but who can then earn potentially unlimited remuneration. We then apply a Oaxaca decomposition for part-, full-, and over-time workers to observe the relative contribution of sorting and remuneration across these hours “regimes” over time and across countries. Through this, we show that while female employment in over-time work increased and the gender wage decreased, this was not driven by increasing selection but rather by a decrease in the unexplained portion of the wage gap over time. We conclude by considering the contribution of unions and labor market flexibility to these cross-country differences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Choi, Youjin, Rachel Margolis & Anders Holm (2025): The Effects of Extended Parental Benefits on Parents’ Employment and Earnings in Canada. In: Demography, Jg. 62, H. 3, S. 879-898. DOI:10.1215/00703370-11958785

Abstract

"Paid parental benefits, with individually earmarked time for mothers and fathers, aim to promote gender equality in labor force participation, wages, and childcare. The Canadian province of Québec expanded parental benefits over and above the federal policy in 2006 with the Québec Parental Insurance Plan (QPIP), which introduced paid paternity leave and lower eligibility criteria as its key features. This policy aimed to increase gender equality by encouraging fathers to use parental benefits and expanding coverage to low-income parents. Using Canadian administrative data and exploiting the policy changes in 2006 as a natural experiment, we examine the effects of Québec's extended parental benefits policy on parents’ employment and earnings over 10 years after the transition to parenthood. First, we find that fathers’ use of parental benefits had positive long-run effects on mothers’ and fathers’ earnings 8–10 years after a first birth. Second, we find that among women with low earnings before the transition to parenthood, QPIP increased the likelihood of employment 1–7 years after a first birth. This article provides the first evidence that a policy dramatically expanding parental benefits and encouraging use among both parents can have long-term positive effects on parents’ labor market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Cobb-Clark, Deborah A., Tung Dang & Hayley Fisher (2025): Daycare Accessibility and Maternal Labor Market Outcomes: Do Quality Ratings Matter? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 18300), Bonn, 43 S.

Abstract

"Using administrative data on Australian daycare centers and a triple-difference design, we examine the impact of daycare availability and quality ratings on childcare utilization and mothers' labor market outcomes. We document a substantial positive impact of daycare availability and higher quality ratings on formal care usage and mothers' employment and earnings. The effect of quality ratings is particularly pronounced among high-income, more-educated, and first-time mothers, whose perceptions of local daycare quality are most responsive to changes in ratings. Our findings underscore the important roles of childcare quality, in addition to accessibility, in shaping families' childcare choices and mothers' employment decisions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Conroy, Tessa, Jie Wu & Steven Deller (2025): Childcare availability and Women’s earnings in the U.S. In: Review of Economics of the Household. DOI:10.1007/s11150-025-09787-0

Abstract

"Extensive research shows that women earn less than men, and mothers earn less than women without children. In fact, the “motherhood penalty” accounts for much of the remaining gender wage gap. Since having children can reduce women’s earnings, access to childcare may play a crucial role in mitigating this effect and boosting women’s income. In this study we consider descriptive evidence of the relationship between childcare availability, defined geographically at the county level, and local women’s earnings. To account for potential spatial spillovers from childcare markets extending beyond county boundaries, we employ a spatial econometric model. This method is well suited for studying childcare markets which function regionally and their local economic effects, as well as for considering variation in this relationship by rurality. We find that in places with greater access to childcare, annual median women earnings are higher as is the ratio of female to male earnings. We also find evidence of interactions between neighboring places, highlighting the reality of cross-community childcare demand and need for regionally-informed childcare policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Corsten, Claire, Rebecca Daviddi & Jan Doering (2025): Empowered by Adversity? Exit, Voice, and Silence in the Aftermath of Gender Discrimination at Work. In: Gender & Society, Jg. 39, H. 3, S. 405-430. DOI:10.1177/08912432251326916

Abstract

"Social psychological research suggests that workplace discrimination harms women’s self-confidence and mental health, which may lead them to remain silent or quit their jobs after facing discrimination. However, feminist scholarship argues that discrimination can generate feminist consciousness and resistance. To interrogate these conflicting expectations, we draw on in-depth interviews with professional women to examine exit, voice, and silence in discrimination ’s aftermath. We find that some women remain silent or exit organizations in search of less hostile environments. Others, however, develop feminist consciousness, voice complaints, and sometimes accomplish hard-fought changes within their organizations. To explain these divergent responses, we identify support networks as a crucial mechanism. Support networks help women avoid self-blame and rumination by resolving the ambiguity that frequently obscures discrimination. Support networks also spread awareness of discrimination and generate feminist solidarity. In doing so, they encourage women to contest negative treatment by exercising voice. Implications for the study of workplace discrimination, the debate over the stalled gender revolution, and occupational segregation are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Coskun Dalgic, Sena & Gonul Sengul (2025): Unpacking the Link between Service Sector and Female Employment: Cross-Country Evidence. (IAB-Discussion Paper 08/2025), Nürnberg, 25 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2508

Abstract

"Der starke Anstieg der Erwerbsbeteiligung von Frauen war in den letzten Jahrzehnten ein bestimmendes Merkmal der hochentwickelten Volkswirtschaften. Dieses Papier untersucht die länderübergreifenden Unterschiede im Zusammenhang zwischen der Expansion des Dienstleistungssektors und der Beschäftigung von Frauen in Europa und den USA. Wir schätzen die Elastizität der Frauenbeschäftigung im Verhältnis zur Beschäftigung im Dienstleistungssektor und decken erhebliche Unterschiede zwischen den Ländern hinsichtlich der Stärke auf, mit der der weibliche Anteil an den Arbeitsstunden auf die Expansion des Dienstleistungssektors reagiert. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass diese Elastizität in Ländern mit einem stärkeren Strukturwandel und einer höheren weiblichen Beschäftigungsintensität im Unternehmensdienstleistungssektor höher ist. Darüber hinaus ist eine höhere weibliche Beschäftigungsintensität im Unternehmensdienstleistungssektor mit einem größeren Lebensmittel- und Beherbergungssektor verbunden. Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass Länder mit einer stärkeren Umverteilung von der Industrie zum Dienstleistungssektor einen stärkeren Anstieg der weiblichen Beschäftigung erlebten, da ihr expandierender Unternehmensdienstleistungssektor zusätzliches Wachstum im Lebensmittel- und Beherbergungssektor erzeugte und Frauen dadurch stärker in die Erwerbsarbeit zog." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Coskun Dalgic, Sena (2025): Gender convergence in all areas: Is it a myth? In: IAB-Forum H. 29.08.2025, 2025-08-27. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20250829.02

Abstract

"While men and women are increasingly found in the same occupations, a surprising trend has emerged: Sectors are becoming more gender-segregated over time. Are these patterns shaped by discriminatory hiring practices or by individual preferences? Examining this question offers new insights into the complex dynamics behind gendered labour market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Cuevas-Ruiz, Pilar, José Ignacio Giménez-Nadal, Sveva Manfredi & Almudena Sevilla (2025): A new model of parental time investments: A paradigm shift for addressing gender inequality in the labor market. (CEP discussion paper / Centre for Economic Performance 2126), London, 38 S.

Abstract

"This paper introduces a new framework for understanding the persistence of the motherhood penalty by emphasizing the role of on-call care. Using a pseudo-panel event study based on the 2003-2022 American Time Use Survey (ATUS), we quantify how different types of parental care time contribute to post-childbirth labor market outcomes. Our results show that gender gaps in on-call care, not primary childcare, drive the long-term reduction in mothers' Paid work. In the first two years after birth, declines in paid work are largely explained by primary interactive childcare. Over time, however, on-call care becomes the dominant factor. This shift is not accounted for in existing labor market models, nor in standard policies such as parental leave and childcare subsidies. We argue that the persistent economic costs of gender inequality can be better understood and addressed by integrating the temporal and unpredictable nature of caregiving into economic theory and policy design." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Daiger von Gleichen, Rosa (2025): Employer-provided childcare across the 50 United States: the normative importance of public childcare and female leadership. In: Journal of Social Policy, Jg. 54, H. 2, S. 574-594. DOI:10.1017/S0047279423000491

Abstract

"Employer family policy tends to be conceived as employers’ response to economic pressures, with the relevance of normative factors given comparatively little weight. This study questions this status quo, examining the normative relevance of public childcare and female leadership to employer childcare. Logistic regression analyses are performed on data from the 2016 National Study of Employers (NSE), a representative study of private sector employers in the United States. The findings show that public childcare is relevant for those forms of employer childcare more plausibly explained as the result of employers’ normative as opposed to economic considerations. The findings further suggest that female leaders are highly relevant for employer childcare, but that this significance differs depending on whether the form of employer childcare is more likely of economic versus normative importance to employers. The study provides an empirical contribution in that it is the first to use representative data of the United States to examine the relevance of state-level public childcare and female leadership. Its theoretical contribution is to show that normative explanations for employer childcare provision are likely underestimated in U.S. employer family policy research." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))