Zitatform

Aragonès, Enriqueta (2026): Gender choice at work. In: Economic analysis and policy, Jg. 89, S. 490-504. DOI:10.1016/j.eap.2025.12.018

Abstract

"This paper analyzes the demand based causes of gender discrimination in the labor market and it aims at explaining the currently existing gender gaps in terms of labor market participation and labor income. I propose a formal model to analyze the gender discrimination that individuals face at work due to taste-based discrimination. I study the effects of discrimination on the labor market participation, income, and utility distributions and compare these effects between the female and male sectors of the society. I show that the conditions that dissipate the gender gaps improve efficiency as well. However, in order to reach a first best it is necessary to eliminate all kinds of gender related idiosyncratic preferences that are based on stereotypes and conscious and unconscious biases." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Economic Society of Australia (Queensland) Inc.) ((en))

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Bairoh, Susanna, Satu Pyöriä & Niklas Mäkinen (2026): Disaggregating Gender Income Disparities in STEM: Cohort and Family Factors in a Nordic Welfare State. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 113-134. DOI:10.1177/09500170251366157

Abstract

"The article examines the income trajectories of women and men in STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) in Finland, a country within the Nordic labour market context that strives for gender equality. The study uses total population register data from Finnish STEM degree holders with at least a bachelor’s degree, aged 30–40 years, selecting cohorts born in 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975 and 1980 (N = 31,865). This study estimates how cohort, becoming a parent, and co-residing with a spouse affect income trajectories for women and men. The findings reveal persistent gender income disparities across cohorts, with economic turbulence potentially widening the differences. The results support the motherhood penalty and, unexpectedly, address a ‘living-alone penalty’ for men. Even with a design examining STEM graduates at the same career stage, gender differences remain significant and are not alleviated by the Nordic welfare state context." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Baktash, Mehrzad B. (2026): Does Performance Pay Increase the Risk of Worker Loneliness? In: Kyklos, Jg. 79, H. 1, S. 129-148. DOI:10.1111/kykl.70018

Abstract

"Increased wages and productivity associated with performance pay can be beneficial to both employers and employees. However, performance pay can also entail unintended consequences for workers' well-being. This study is the first to systematically examine the association between performance pay and loneliness, a significant policy-relevant social well-being concern. Using representative survey data from Germany, I show that performance pay is significantly associated with increased loneliness. Correspondingly, performance pay is negatively associated with the social life satisfaction of workers. Investigating the transmission channels reveals work hours, earnings, conflict with coworkers, and conflict with the life partner as important mediators. The key findings also hold in sensible instrumental variable estimations, addressing the potential endogeneity of performance pay and in various robustness checks. Finally, implications are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Barbieri, Teresa, Michele Bavaro & Valeria Cirillo (2026): Falling behind unequally: labour market outcomes of Italian couples after childbirth*. In: Applied Economics, S. 1-20. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2026.2624051

Abstract

"This study explores how childbirth differently shapes the career trajectories of men and women within the same couples, with a particular focus on gender disparities in experiencing downward labour transitions following the birth of their first child. Using a unique survey-administrative linked dataset, we track couples’labour market trajectories to analysetransitions from employment to unemployment, full-time to part-time employment, and higher-paid to lower-paid jobs. Additionally, the dataset allows to link partners, enabling the study of factors influencing differences in the probabilities of downward labour market transitions between partners in the same household. Our findings reveal substantial and persistent penalties for women, lasting up to three years after childbirth, which are mainly related to part-time job arrangements. When examining differences in probabilities within couples, households in which women have tertiary education with respect to their partners and are the primary earners exhibit smaller gender disparities in the likelihood of downward labour transitions with respect to other households." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Been, Jim, Marike Knoef & Heike Vethaak (2026): How Important is Selection into Full-time and Part-time Employment? A New Panel Data Sample Selection Model for Estimating Wage Profiles. In: Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, Jg. 44, H. 1, S. 215-226. DOI:10.1080/07350015.2025.2520851

Abstract

"The literature has shown that correcting for self-selection into work is important for the estimation of wage profiles. In this paper, we analyze to what extent intensive labor supply choices add valuable otherwise unobserved information to improve wage profile estimates. We develop a panel data sample selection model that allows for discrete choices in labor supply decisions and apply this to high-quality administrative data. Compared to labor supply decisions at the extensive margin, our new approach is able to control for additional unobserved heterogeneity from intensive labor supply choices with important consequences for the existence and direction of selection into (part-time) work. Applied to the data, we find that such information is especially important for estimating part-time wage profiles for women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bothfeld, Silke, Christian Hohendanner, Petra Schütt & Aysel Yollu-Tok (2026): Einleitung: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer geschlechtergerechten Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik. In: S. Bothfeld, C. Hohendanner, P. Schütt & A. Yollu-Tok (Hrsg.) (2026): Geschlechtergerecht gestalten. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik, S. 9-26.

Abstract

"Wer über Geschlechtergerechtigkeit spricht, kommt an der begrifflichen Unterscheidung zwischen Gleichberechtigung und Gleichstellungspolitik nicht vorbei. Diese Differenz ist grundlegend für das Verständnis politischer, sozialer und ökonomischer Maßnahmen zur Überwindung geschlechterbezogener Ungleichheiten. Gleichberechtigung meint die rechtlich garantierte Gleichheit von Frauen und Männern – wie sie etwa in Artikel 3 des Grundgesetzes verankert ist. Sie garantiert allen Menschen denselben Zugang zu Rechten: zum Bildungssystem, zum Arbeitsmarkt, zu politischen Ämtern. Doch so unverzichtbar diese rechtliche Grundlage ist, so unzureichend ist sie, wenn es um die tatsächliche Teilhabe in einer nach wie vor von struktureller Ungleichheit geprägten Gesellschaft geht. Hier setzt die Gleichstellungspolitik an: Sie begnügt sich nicht mit der formalen Gleichheit, sondern zielt auf faktische Chancengleichheit. Für die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter wurde daher im Artikel 3 Abs. 2 (»Männer und Frauen sind gleichberechtigt.«) 1994 der Zusatz aufgenommen »Der Staat fördert die tatsächliche Durchsetzung der Gleichberechtigung von Frauen und Männern und wirkt auf die Beseitigung bestehender Nachteile hin«. Die Gleichstellungspolitik soll in diesem Sinne bestehende Benachteiligungen – etwa beim Einkommen, bei der Verteilung von Sorgearbeit, beim Zugang zu Führungspositionen oder in den sozialen Sicherungssystemen – sichtbar machen und Instrumente entwickeln, um Ungleichheiten abzubauen. Gleichstellungspolitik bedeutet nicht Privilegierung oder Sonderbehandlung, sondern sie ist Ausdruck eines demokratischen Gestaltungsauftrags: Sie soll sicherstellen, dass Gleichberechtigung nicht nur auf dem Papier steht, sondern im gesellschaftlichen Alltag wirksam wird. Dieser Sammelband greift zentrale Fragen dieser Gestaltungsaufgabe im Rahmen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik auf und versammelt Beiträge, die sich mit geschlechterbezogenen Ungleichheiten am Arbeitsmarkt und im Sozialstaat befassen – empirisch fundiert, theoretisch reflektiert und mit einem gemeinsamen Ziel: Geschlechtergerechtigkeit nicht nur zu fordern, sondern Hinweise und Vorschläge für die Gestaltung von konkreten Strukturen und politischen Maßnahmen zu präsentieren." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Bothfeld, Silke, Christian Hohendanner, Petra Schütt & Aysel Yollu-Tok (Hrsg.) (2026): Geschlechtergerecht gestalten. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 471 S. DOI:10.12907/978-3-593-45932-5

Abstract

"Trotz zahlreicher Bemühungen und Erfolge in der Gleichstellungspolitik seit Ende der 1990er Jahre bestehen in der Praxis nach wie vor erhebliche geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. Frauen haben nach wie vor geringere Erfolgsaussichten beim Zugang und beim Verbleib in Beschäftigung, ihre Bezahlung und ihre Aufstiegsmöglichkeiten sind schlechter. Die Beiträge dieses Bandes bieten einen umfassenden Überblick über die aktuelle geschlechtsbezogene Arbeits(marktpolitik-)forschung. Mit einem multiperspektivischen Blick auf den vergeschlechtlichten Arbeitsmarkt gelingt es dem Band, historische Aspekte, Gegenwartsanalysen sowie gesellschaftliche Transformationsprozesse und Lösungsansätze zu verbinden." (Verlagsangaben, IAB-Doku)

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Burns, Natasha, Kristina Minnick, Jeffry Netter & Laura Starks (2026): Gender Pay Gap and Cultural Values. In: Journal of financial and quantitative analysis, Jg. 61, H. 1, S. 511-546. DOI:10.1017/s0022109025000183

Abstract

"Employing a cross-country sample, we examine how a population’s underlying cultural values help explain gender compensation variation across corporate executives. The results show that the cultural differences embedded in societies long before the board’s compensation decisions have significant explanatory power for the observed gender gap in executive compensation. Using an Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition combined with variables previously shown to be fundamental determinants of executive compensation, we find that adding cultural measures increases the model’s explanatory power of the gender compensation gap from 44% to 95%. We use further identification strategies to support causal inference." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Chalermsook, Porjai, Pekka Ilmakunnas & Rudiger von Arnim (2026): Exports, Gender Inequality, and Family Commitment. In: Labour, Jg. 40, H. 1, S. 74-100. DOI:10.1111/labr.70007

Abstract

"This paper examines how exporting firms, gender, and family commitments interact to shape wage disparities. Using Finnish matched employer–employee data, we estimate wage equations that control for firm, worker, and match-specific unobservables. While exporting firms do not exhibit a wider gender wage gap overall, women with young children face additional short-run wage penalties, as shown by an event-study analysis that reveals a temporary but pronounced gap in the early post-childbirth years. These penalties are concentrated in occupations with greater temporal rigidity and limited scheduling flexibility, highlighting workplace flexibility constraints as a key mechanism. The findings suggest that the interaction between export-related temporal demands and caregiving responsibilities contributes to gendered wage dynamics. These results also raise questions about the continuing relevance of gender norms that disadvantage female employees, even in a context with strong public support for parental leave and childcare in Finland." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, Published by arrangement with John Wiley & Sons) ((en))

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Collischon, Matthias & Florian Zimmermann (2026): Die Rolle von Firmen für Geschlechterungleichheit. In: S. Bothfeld, C. Hohendanner, P. Schütt & A. Yollu-Tok (Hrsg.) (2026): Geschlechtergerecht gestalten. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik, S. 253-267, 2025-10-05.

Abstract

"Dieser Beitrag untersuchte zwei Mechanismen, durch die Firmen zur Geschlechterungleichheit beitragen können. Erstens könnten Frauen seltener in Hochlohnfirmen arbeiten und zweitens könnten Frauen in derselben Firma geringere Löhne gezahlt werden. Im Hinblick auf die Arbeit in unterschiedlichen Firmen zeigt sich, dass Frauen seltener in Firmen arbeiten, die im Durchschnitt ein höheres Gehalt zahlen. Die Forschung deutet darauf hin, dass diese Segregation – also die Aufteilung von Frauen in Niedriglohnfirmen und Männern in Hochlohnfirmen – einerseits von Arbeitgeberseite bedingt ist, beispielsweise durch Diskriminierung oder durch soziale Schließung. Andererseits können Frauen sich aber auch gezielt bei Firmen bewerben, die geringere Löhne durch andere Vorteile kompensieren, wie beispielsweise seltenere Überstunden (vgl. Cha/Weeden 2014). Insgesamt können Unterschiede zwischen den Firmen, in denen Männer und Frauen arbeiten, rund ein Drittel der bereinigten Geschlechterlohnlücke erklären. Diese immer noch große, verbleibende Lohnlücke zeigt jedoch, dass es auch innerhalb von Betrieben noch Faktoren geben muss, die zu Geschlechterlohnlücken beitragen. Deshalb betrachteten wir im zweiten Schritt Lohnungleichheiten in Firmen und die Bedeutung des organisationalen Kontexts. Hierzu suchten wir gleichstellungsorientierte organisationale Maßnahmen, den Anteil von Managerinnen in Firmen und die Rolle von Tarifverträgen. Hier zeigt die Forschung, dass es jeweils Zusammenhänge mit Geschlechterlohnlücken gibt, diese jedoch nicht immer einfachen Mustern folgen. Beispielsweise könnten eine Erhöhung des Frauenanteils im Management und die Einführung betrieblicher nahmen die Geschlechterlohnlücke verringern. Für Tarifverträge hingegen ist das Bild uneindeutig. Die Forschung zeigt zwar, dass Lohnlücken in Betrieben, in denen Tarifverträge gelten, kleiner sind, jedoch verringert die Einführung eines Tarifvertrags die Lohnlücke nicht nachweislich. Insgesamt zeigt sich also, dass sowohl Segregation in verschiedene Firmen als auch der organisationale Kontext in Firmen einen substanziellen Teil der Geschlechterlohnlücke erklären kann, jedoch bleibt trotzdem ein unerklärter Rest übrig. Beispielsweise würde selbst bei Erhöhung des Frauenanteils im Management auf Parität, also 50 Prozent, immer noch eine Geschlechterlohnlücke verbleiben (Zimmermann, 2022). Zusammengefasst kann der Blick auf die Ebene von Firmen somit viel zum Verständnis der Geschlechterlohnlücke beitragen, aber sie sind nur Teil eines größeren Puzzles. Dies unterstreicht, wie vielschichtig das Problem der Geschlechterungleichheit ist und dass Maßnahmen auf vielen Ebenen - bei Individuen, in Betrieben, durch die Gesetzgebung - notwendig sind, um diese Lücken zu schließen. Weiterhin besteht auch auf der Firmenebene viel Forschungsbedarf. Während beispielsweise die Repräsentation von Frauen in verschiedenen Führungsebenen untersucht wurde, wissen wir wenig über die genauen Tätigkeiten einzelner Manager:innen, meist werden unterschiedliche Aufgabenbereiche zusammen gefasst. Somit könnte die Kategorisierung in Führungsebenen zu grob sein und eine Unterteilung nach genauen Tätigkeitsprofilen tiefere Einblicke in zugrundeliegende Mechanismen geben. Auf ähnliche Weise sind die untersuchten Maßnahmen in größere Kategorien zusammengefasst, die keine detaillierteren Aussagen erlauben. Schließlich ist auch noch unbekannt, ob die angebotenen Maßnahmen tatsächlich genutzt werden und ob deren Nutzung zur Verringerung der Lohnlücke beiträgt oder das Angebot alleine ausreicht." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Cortés, Patricia, Jisoo Hwang, Jessica Pan & Uta Schönberg (2026): Gender Norms and the Labor Market. (NBER working paper / National Bureau of Economic Research 34716), Cambridge, Mass, 42 S.

Abstract

"Despite substantial convergence in men's and women's economic roles, gender gaps in labor market outcomes persist across countries. This article provides a unified framework for understanding how gender norms shape economic behavior, distinguishing between internalized norms—preferences and beliefs tied to gender identity—and external norms arising from peer pressure and social coordination. We first document cross-country and within-country variation in gender attitudes, alongside gradual but uneven shifts toward more egalitarian views. We then review empirical evidence on the origins, persistence, and transmission of gender norms, and their effects on human capital accumulation, labor supply, wages, and policy take-up. The review highlights both the durability of gender norms and the mechanisms through which policies, institutions, and media can induce norm change, with implications for the design of effective interventions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Coskun, Sena, Husnu Dalgic & Yasemin Özdemir (2026): Navigating Motherhood: Endogenous Penalties and Career Choice. (IAB-Discussion Paper 02/2026), Nürnberg, 57 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2602

Abstract

"Wir dokumentieren, dass Frauen sich vor der Geburt ihres ersten Kindes strategisch in „familienfreundliche” Sektoren sortieren, die durch geringere Erfahrungswerte, aber niedrigere Einbußen pro Kind gekennzeichnet sind. Dieses antizipatorische Sortieren stellt ex-ante Kosten der Mutterschaft dar, die von herkömmlichen Maßen für die Child Penalty gänzlich übersehen werden. Wir entwickeln ein Modell heterogener Akteure für Berufswahl und Fertilität, um diese „Sorting Penalty” zu quantifizieren. Unser zentrales Ergebnis ist, dass der direkte Einkommensverlust durch berufliches Sortieren zwar gering ist, dieses Resultat jedoch die hohe Wirksamkeit der primären Instrumente offenbart, mit denen Frauen Mutterschaft bewältigen: die Qualität-Quantität (Q-Q) und Zeitverwendung (T-E) Trade-offs. Durch empirische Evidenz für beide Spielräume zeigen wir, dass Frauen keine passiven Subjekte von Child Penalties sind; sie sind aktive, strategische Akteurinnen, die diese feineren Abwägungen nutzen, um familiäre Ziele zu erreichen und gleichzeitig berufliche Kosten zu mildern. Unsere Ergebnisse unterstreichen: Da Fertilität und Benachteiligungen zutiefst endogen sind, werden politische Rahmenbedingungen, die diese Trade-offs ausschließen, die Fertilitätsreaktionen und Karrierekosten von Interventionen grundlegend falsch berechnen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Cruz, João, Amélia Bastos, Sara Falcão Casaca & Isabel Proença (2026): Gender pay gap trends across STEM fields: an empirical analysis. In: The international journal of sociology and social policy, Jg. 46, H. 3-4, S. 426-447. DOI:10.1108/ijssp-02-2025-0090

Abstract

"Purpose: This paper analyses the gender pay gap (GPG) in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) in Portugal over the past decade, utilising official national earnings data. Design/methodology/approach: A decomposition method is applied to estimate the explained and unexplained components of the GPG both at the mean and across the distribution quartiles of national earnings. This methodology can also be applied to other sectors or countries, providing robust statistical and econometric results relating to the GPG. Findings: The results show that the GPG varies heterogeneously across STEM fields. In occupations relating to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), which are included in STEM, the GPG has been widening in recent years, in contrast to the overall trend in the labour force. Originality/value: The GPG in STEM is under-researched, with existing literature indicating a structural gap in these occupations. Understanding this GPG is essential for its reduction and for maximising human capital, which is vital for social and economic growth. This article aims to contribute to the discussion on this topic and offers potential policy recommendations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Deming, Sarah M. (2026): Antecedents of Motherhood Penalties: The Work-Care Preferences of Socioeconomically Diverse Expectant Mothers. In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 47, H. 1, S. 74-94. DOI:10.1007/s10834-025-10071-7

Abstract

"This study contributes to the work-family literature in three ways. First, it challenges the emphasis on the economic impacts of motherhood by introducing a framework—Work-Care Preferences (WCP)—that acknowledges how women’s personal orientations to paid work and to motherhood converge to create varied preferences for how (or whether) to best combine the two. Second, documenting how women’s WCPs are influenced by socioeconomic status illuminates a previously unidentified mechanism by which motherhood penalties are unequally experienced. Lastly, by highlighting how expectant mothers’ personal conceptions of paid work influence their subsequent WCPs, it offers opportunities to design workplace and policy-level interventions to support maternal employment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Fortes de Lena, Fernanda & Diederik Boertien (2026): A Marriage Premium for Whom? Sexual Identity, Relationship Status and Earnings. In: Journal of Marriage and Family, Jg. 88, H. 1, S. 81-99. DOI:10.1111/jomf.70005

Abstract

"Objective: This article aims to understand how relationship status is associated with earnings among LGB people. Background: Previous research has found that marriage is related to higher earnings for men and lower earnings for women, but has not often considered whether this holds across different sexual identities. Method: We use the longitudinal Understanding Society data from the UK to show how the earnings of LGB individuals are associated with relationship status (single, non-residential partner, residential partner, married). Results: Cohabiting or married men generally earn more compared to single men, regardless of sexual identity. However, gay men's earnings only increase after marrying, whereas heterosexual and bisexual men's earnings increase after entering any co-residential relationship. This suggests that gay men might receive more social support or employer approval after entering a normative relationship form. Heterosexual women start earning less after marriage, whereas the impact of changes in relationship status on earnings is relatively small and non-significant for bisexual and lesbian women. These results are largely explained by paid and unpaid work hours, suggesting that the division of labor within relationships lowers earnings among heterosexual women but not among LGB women. Conclusion: LGB women's earnings depend relatively little on changes in relationship status. At the same time, gay men only receive premiums related to having a partner once they marry." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fuchs, Michaela, Anja Rossen, Antje Weyh & Gabriele Wydra-Somaggio (2026): Der Gender-Pay-Gap wird kleiner – jedoch nicht in allen Regionen. In: IAB-Forum H. 23.02.2026. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20260223.01

Abstract

"Zwar wird der Gender-Pay-Gap, also die Entgeltlücke zwischen Frauen und Männern, in Deutschland seit einigen Jahren langsam kleiner. Frauen verdienen im Schnitt aber nach wie vor deutlich weniger als Männer. Der Rückgang zeigt sich zudem nicht in allen Regionen Deutschlands: In 15 von 400 Kreisen ist der Gender-Pay-Gap zwischen 2019 und 2024 sogar gestiegen. Diese gegensätzlichen Entwicklungen hängen mit unterschiedlichen Veränderungen in der regionalen Lohn-, Betriebsgrößen- und Berufsstruktur zusammen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Fuchs, Michaela, Anja Rossen, Antje Weyh & Gabriele Wydra-Somaggio (2026): Regionale Unterschiede im Gender-Pay-Gap in Deutschland 2024. (Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung. Aktuelle Daten und Indikatoren), Nürnberg, 16 S.

Abstract

"Die vorliegenden Auswertungen beinhalten Angaben zum Tagesentgelt sozialversicherungspflichtig vollzeitbeschäftigter Frauen und Männer sowie zum unbereinigten und bereinigten Gender-Pay-Gap in den Bundesländern und Kreisen Deutschlands für das Jahr 2024. Nähere Erläuterungen zu den Einflussfaktoren auf die unterschiedlichen regionalen Gender-Pay-Gaps sowie zur zeitlichen Entwicklung finden sich im IAB-Forumsbeitrag von Fuchs, Rossen, Weyh und Wydra-Somaggio (2026)." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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González, Libertad, Sergi Jiménez-Martín, Natalia Nollenberger & Judit Vall Castello (2026): The Effect of Access to Legal Abortion on Fertility, Marriage, and Long-term Outcomes for Women. In: The Economic Journal, Jg. 136, H. 674, S. 440-467. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueaf054

Abstract

"We evaluate the short- and long-term effects for women of access to legal, subsidized abortion. We find evidence that the legalization of abortion in Spain in 1985 led to an immediate decrease in births, more pronounced for younger women in provinces with a higher supply of abortion services. Affected women were more likely to graduate from high school, less likely to marry young, less likely to divorce in the long-term, and reported higher life satisfaction as adults. We find at most small reductions in completed fertility, while we do not find meaningful effects on labour market outcomes in the long run." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Jahn, Sandy, Carola Burkert, Katharina Diener & Britta Matthes (2026): Digital Gender Gap. Schwerpunkt 2026 Künstliche Intelligenz. Berlin, 20 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.D21.2026

Abstract

"Künstliche Intelligenz wird immer mehr zur Schlüsselressource. Ihre Nutzung entscheidet zunehmend über Wettbewerbsfähigkeit, Beschäftigungschancen und gesellschaftliche Teilhabe – vergleichbar mit Alphabetisierung oder Internetzugang in früheren Transformationsphasen. Die Studie des IAB und der Initiative D 21 zeigt: Es besteht ein signifikanter Gender AI Gap. Frauen nutzen KI-Anwendungen seltener und weniger intensiv als Männer (rund 16 Prozentpunkte Unterschied in der Ausgangsbetrachtung). Wenn Unterschiede in Alter, Bildung, Einkommen, beruflichem Kontext sowie Kompetenzen und Einstellungen statistisch berücksichtigt werden, verringert sich die Lücke zwar – bleibt aber auch dann bestehen (rund 8 Prozentpunkte)." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Khaliliaraghi, Negar, Petter Lundborg & Johan Vikström (2026): Gender Gaps Under Comparable Tasks: Evidence from Quasi-Random Assignment. (CESifo working paper 12413), München, 57 S.

Abstract

"Gender gaps in earnings persist even among high-skilled workers, partly because men and women often perform different tasks within and across jobs. We study a rare setting in which high-skilled men and women perform the same tasks under comparable conditions, allowing us to assess gender differences in productivity and pay without confounding from task or client allocation. Using administrative data from the Swedish Public Employment Service between 2003 and 2014, we exploit a rotation scheme that quasi-randomly assigns job seekers to employment caseworkers. This ensures male and female caseworkers are matched with comparable clients. We find productivity differences are small: job seekers assigned to female and male caseworkers exit unemployment at similar rates, with no evidence of job-quality differences. Consistent with this, hourly wages—conditional on productivity—are nearly identical across genders. Despite this, female caseworkers earn about 8 percent less per year, due to differences in contracted and actual hours worked. We also find suggestive evidence that male caseworkers are more likely to be promoted than equally productive female colleagues. Overall, when tasks are standardized and performance is measured objectively, gender differences in productivity and hourly pay are minimal, while gaps in annual earnings and career progression persist." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lancker, Wim Van, Alzbeta Bartova, Max Thaning & Rense Nieuwenhuis (2026): Household classification, family diversity and poverty risks in Europe: Addressing a North-Western bias. In: Journal of European Social Policy, S. 1-18. DOI:10.1177/09589287261430496

Abstract

"European statistics and policies commonly rely on household typologies that classify households based on the number of adults and children living together. However, these typologies overlook family relationships and classify any non-standard arrangement into a broad residual category of ‘other’. This approach fails to capture increasing family diversity across Europe and introduces a persistent North-Western bias into data and policymaking. As a result, families that do not fit conventional models may be misclassified or entirely overlooked in poverty assessments and policy targeting. This is problematic since family structures vary substantially across European countries and became more diverse over time. This article introduces the Families in Households Typology (FHT), a classification system that uses relationship identifiers in EU-SILC microdata to reconstruct family structures within households. The FHT reduces the share of individuals placed in the residual ‘other’ category from over 20% to around 5%, particularly improving identification in Southern, Central, and Eastern European countries where multigenerational living arrangements are common. The results also show that nearly half of all single parents in Europe live with another adult and are not captured as single parents under conventional typologies. This has important implications for policy design: many single-parent households may be excluded from targeted support due to misclassification. Reclassifying households using the FHT also reshapes our understanding of living standards. The poverty risk of single parents is often overestimated when the Eurostat household typology is adopted. When single parents co-residing with kin or unrelated adults are correctly identified, their average poverty risk tends to be much lower. These findings highlight the importance of moving away from basic household counts towards relational classifications that more accurately reflect the diversity of family life across Europe, rather than using typologies that reflect the dominant family reality in Northern and Western Europe." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Lochner, Benjamin & Christian Merkl (2026): Gender-Specific Application Behaviour, Matching, and the Residual Gender Earnings Gap. In: The Economic Journal, Jg. 136, H. 673, S. 97-124., 2025-05-08. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueaf037

Abstract

"This paper examines how gender-specific application behavior, firms’ hiring practices, and flexibility demands relate to the gender earnings gap, using linked data from the German Job Vacancy Survey and administrative records. Women are less likely than men to apply to high-wage firms with high flexibility requirements, although their hiring chances are similar when they do. We show that compensating differentials for firms’ flexibility demands help explain the residual gender earnings gap. Among women, mothers experience the largest earnings penalties relative to men in jobs with high flexibility requirements." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Musick, Kelly & Wonjeong Jeong (2026): State-level gender inequality and couples’ relative earnings following parenthood over four decades. In: Social science research, Jg. 135. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103302

Abstract

"We draw from gender perspectives on the division of labor and emerging research on structural sexism to empirically evaluate how systemic gender inequality shapes within-couple earnings inequality at the turning point of parenthood. Our data on pre- and post-birth earnings come from successive couple-level panels of the Current Population Survey over four decades (1982–2020, N = 87,694 couples and 175,388 couple-observations), merged to state-level indicators of gender inequality spanning the same time period that tap the devaluation of work done by women across multiple domains. Results from fixed effect models suggest that state-level gender inequality shapes couples' responses to parenthood in meaningful ways, with steeper declines in wives' relative earnings among new parents living in states that place lower value on women's work. The estimated effect of sexism is gendered, operating through wives' earnings. It persists through the early childbearing years and across decades, and it varies little by measures of couples' social advantage. Evidence that structural sexism exacerbates earnings inequality among parents is robust, with implications for mothers' economic vulnerability and well-being." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))

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Schmid, Ramona (2026): Mind the gap: effects of the national minimum wage on the gender wage gap of full-time workers in Germany. In: Journal of Economic Inequality, Jg. 24, H. 1, S. 129-158. DOI:10.1007/s10888-025-09669-6

Abstract

"Since 2015, the national minimum wage aims to benefit primarily low-wage workers in Germany. I examine how the minimum wage influences gender wage gaps of full-time workers within the lower half of the wage distribution on a regional level. Using administrative data, distinct regional differences in the extent of gender wage gaps and responses to the minimum wage become clear. Overall, wage gaps between men and women at the 10th percentile decrease by 2.46 and 6.34 percentage points in the West and East of Germany after 2015. Applying counterfactual wage distributions, I show that introducing the minimum wage explains decreases in gender wage gaps by 60% to 95%. Group-specific analyses demonstrate various responses based on age, educational level and occupational activity. Counterfactual aggregate Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions indicate that discriminatory remuneration structures decrease in the West of Germany after introducing the minimum wage." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Schütz, Jana (2026): Beliefs about the gender pension gap. In: European Economic Review, Jg. 184. DOI:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2025.105244

Abstract

"I conduct an online survey of 3000 respondents in the United States to examine individuals’ beliefs about the gender pension gap. By including an information provision experiment in which treated respondents are informed about the size of the gender pension gap, I examine whether receiving this information causally affects respondents’ perceptions of the fairness and drivers of the gender pension gap and their support for policies aimed at reducing it. I find that most respondents underestimate the gender pension gap and that treated respondents are less likely to perceive the gender pension gap as fair. In addition, treated respondents perceive the unequal distribution of care work and gender differences in wages as more important drivers of the gap, and their demand for remedial policies such as targeted financial education increases significantly. This increase in policy demand is driven by male respondents and Republicans." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2026 The Author. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Shattuck, Rachel M. (2026): Cross-cohort employment differences among U.S. mothers of young children: The role of nonparental childcare. In: Social science research, Jg. 133. DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103261

Abstract

"Following increased mothers' employment since the later 20th century, the majority of U.S. mothers now experience employment with children under age three. Most use nonparental childcare (NPC) while employed. NPC can include care provided in childcare centers and preschools, as well as by nannies, babysitters and relatives, and in family childcare homes. Changes since the 1980s to care costs and availability, labor market conditions, family structures, and public assistance policies may result in differences in the predictive relationship between NPC use and employment among late-20th vs. early-21st century mothers. I use National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979) (“Baby-Boomers”) and 1997 (“Millennials”) data to compare monthly likelihood of full-time employment, part-time employment, and employment exit—and how NPC use differently affects these—among mothers of children under three. A hybrid model including within-person and between-person components compares women to themselves at different points in time when they are employed either with or without NPC. NPC use increases full-time employment, and employment stability, for mothers in both cohorts. However, Millennials use NPC more than Baby-Boomers. Furthermore, NPC increases the likelihood of maintaining full-time employment, and transitioning from part-time to full-time employment, by larger magnitudes for Millennials than for Baby-Boomers. Supplementary descriptive analyses show changed care types, increased care costs, and increased nonstandard employment, all of which may contribute to this cross-cohort difference. Results demonstrate how NPC plays a key role in supporting employment within individual women's life courses, and how these effects may differ across different social and historical settings." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))

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Simón-Albert, Raquel, Matías Mayor, José M. Casado-Díaz & Hipólito Simón (2026): Mapping the Determinants of Female Employment: Labour Market Areas and Spatial Spillovers. In: Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, Jg. 117, H. 2, S. 250-270. DOI:10.1111/tesg.70057

Abstract

"This paper examines the territorial determinants of female employment rates using labour market areas (LMAs) – functional units based on commuting patterns – to mitigate the Modifiable AreaUnit Problem (MAUP). Drawing on detailed Spanish census microdata and spatial econometrics, we find that male unemployment negatively affects female employment through a discouraged worker effect , whereas higher shares of part-time jobs, medium household income, and a greater proportion of immigrant women from emerging countries are associated with better female employment outcomes. Certain aspects of local economic structure, particularly a larger service sector, positively influence women’s employment. Comparing spatial and non-spatial specifications shows only modest gains, consistent with limited cross-area spillovers when the analysis relies on functionally defined units. Overall, the evidence supports LMAs as appropriate territorial units and highlights the importance of care-related and income-based interventions, together with efforts to broaden sectoral opportunities for women and to improve data availability at the functional-area level." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Sofka, Wolfgang, Christoph Grimpe & Ulrich Kaiser (2026): Gender wage discrimination and the attractiveness of foreign MNC subsidiaries as employers for women. In: Journal of International Business Studies, Jg. 57, H. 2, S. 173-196. DOI:10.1057/s41267-025-00811-0

Abstract

"The article explores the issue of gender wage discrimination, where women are often paid less than men for the same work. This problem is rooted in societal norms and beliefs about gender roles. The study focuses on how foreign multinational corporations (MNCs) might offer better opportunities for rooted discrimination in domestic firms. It investigates whether women who experience gender wage discrimination are more likely to seek employment with foreign MNCs, which might offer fairer wages and more opportunities for advancement. This article uses data from Denmark, covering the years 2002 to 2015, to analyze the job changes of 165,624 female professionals and managers. The researchers use the Kitagawa–Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition to measure gender wage discrimination. This method helps separate the wage gap into parts that can be explained by differences in skills and experience and parts that cannot, indicating discrimination. The study also considers factors like the productivity of domestic firms compared to foreign MNCs and the presence of women in management roles within these companies. The authors conduct interviews with women who have experienced wage discrimination to understand their motivations and preferences when choosing employers. The study finds that women who face higher levels of gender wage discrimination in domestic firms are more likely to seek employment with foreign MNCs. This tendency is stronger in labor markets where foreign MNCs have more women in management roles, signaling a deviation from male-dominated norms. The research finds that foreign MNCs can become attractive employers for women seeking to escape wage discrimination. The authors conclude that understanding women’s preferences and the conditions under which they consider foreign MNCs as attractive employers can help address the challenge of gender-based economic inequality. Future implications include the potential for foreign MNCs to play a significant role in promoting gender equality in the workplace by offering fairer wages and more opportunities for women.This text was initially drafted using artificial intelligence, then reviewed by the author(s) to ensure accuracy." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Stainback, Kevin (2026): Organizational accountability and gender segregation: can bureaucratic reforms drive organizational change? In: Social forces, S. 1-23. DOI:10.1093/sf/soag003

Abstract

"Gender segregation is a core indicator of organizational inequality with downstream implications for wages, authority, and career mobility. Its causes and consequences have been studied extensively, yet much less is known about the organizational practices that may reduce it. This study addresses this gap by examining the effects of accountability practices on workplace gender integration. Scholars have identified three key aspects of organizational accountability: setting diversity goals, assigning responsibility, and monitoring and reviewing personnel decisions. These practices are widely believed to be effective; however, surprisingly little empirical research has examined which practices work to reduce inequality. Previous studies have primarily focused on assigning responsibility to a staff position or department (e.g., human resource or diversity manager), with few examining diversity goals or monitoring and reviewing practices. Analyzing a nationally representative panel dataset of British workplaces (2004–2011), this study finds that implementing diversity goals,assigning oversight to a human resource professional, and monitoring and reviewing personnel decisions significantly reduce gender segregation. These effects remain robust across models controlling for other practices theorized to reduce gender segregation, women’s managerial representation, and changes in employment during the Great Recession. These findings underscore how accountability-based bureaucratic reforms can advance workplace integration." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Stinebrickner, Todd, Ralph Stinebrickner & Paul Sullivan (2026): Job Tasks, Task-Specific Work Experience, and the Gender Wage Gap. In: Journal of Human Capital, Jg. 20, H. 1, S. 1-34. DOI:10.1086/738042

Abstract

"Taking advantage of unique longitudinal task data from the Berea Panel Study, we provide a new ex-amination of the gender wage gap, paying particular attention to gender differences in types of work experience. Access to longitudinal individual-level job task information, along with unique time allo-cation information, allows us to produce quantitative measures of current and past tasks. We provide the first empirical evidence on gender differences in time spent on tasks, and show that gender differ-ences in task-specific experience, in particular high-skilled information experience, are important for predicting the widening of the gender wage gap over the career." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Strazdins, Lyndall, Tinh Doan, Liana Leach, Jianghong Li, Matthias Pollmann-Schult & Till Kaiser (2026): Ceilings: Gender Inequality in Hours, Earnings and Health. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 182. DOI:10.1007/s11205-026-03820-0

Abstract

"One reason gender earning gaps persist is that well-paid jobs presume long work hours, and these are incompatible with family care. Long hours also harm health, and the risks may increase for workers with care and domestic workloads, adding a gendered health penalty. Using representative, longitudinal data from Australia and Germany (144,430–153,659 observations for HILDA and SOEP surveys, respectively, 2002–2022), we model the interconnections between hours and health among men and women aged 25–64 years. Our models include hours spent on care and domestic work, to estimate the points at which working more gains earnings but incurs risks for health and how this may differ by gender. The results show that average health ceilings mirror standard work hours (38 to 43 h per week) in both countries, but this masks wide gender differences. Gender stratified models reveal that long work hours are relatively less harmful for men compared to women, and as work hours lengthen, the penalty to women’s physical and mental health increases. We further show how these differential health harms are linked to extra time spent on family care and domestic work. Our study extends theory on how gender inequality is maintained in organisations and in the labour market, and the need for policy action to limit long work hours." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Wang, Hanna (2026): Fertility and Family Leave Policies in Germany: Optimal Policy Design in a Dynamic Framework. (RF Berlin - CReAM Discussion Paper Series 2026,29), Berlin, 71 S.

Abstract

"I develop and estimate a life-cycle discrete-choice model of fertility and female labor supply to study the optimal design of a range of child-related policies. First, I examine two German reforms that introduced wage-contingent parental leave payments and expanded access to low-cost public childcare. I find that both reforms raised completed fertility, with the parental leave reform having a particularly strong impact on highly educated women. Second, I solve for a budget-neutral optimal policy portfolio that maximizes either aggregate welfare or fertility, while ensuring that welfare and fertility do not decline for any education group. I consider four prominent child subsidies as well as the degree of tax jointness. My results show that optimal policy has the potential to increase welfare by 0.5% or fertility by 5.7%. While the solutions are qualitatively similar, they prioritize different policy instruments depending on the specific objective being targeted." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Weyh, Antje, Michaela Fuchs & Anja Rossen (2026): Geschlechtsspezifische Lohnunterschiede in Sachsen – Regionale Unterschiede und Entwicklung. (IAB-Regional. Berichte und Analysen aus dem Regionalen Forschungsnetz. IAB Sachsen 01/2026), Nürnberg, 32 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.RES.2601

Abstract

"Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht den Gender Pay Gap und seine Bestimmungsfaktoren in den Jahren 2019 und 2024 im regionalen Vergleich zwischen Deutschland, Ostdeutschland, Sachsen und den sächsischen Kreisen. Die zentrale Datenbasis dafür bildet die Beschäftigtenhistorik des Instituts für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung. In Sachsen lag der unbereinigte Gender Pay Gap für Vollzeitbeschäftige in 2024 mit 6,7 Prozent über dem Wert für Ostdeutschland mit 5,1 Prozent, allerdings deutlich unterhalb des gesamtdeutschen Wertes von 17,2 Prozent. Gegenüber 2019 ging er sowohl in Sachsen, in Ostdeutschland als auch deutschlandweit weiter zurück. Insgesamt nehmen dabei sowohl die Unterschiede zwischen den Regionen, als auch die Unterschiede zwischen den Gender Pay Gap nach ausgewählten individuellen und betrieblichen Merkmalen weiter ab. Um ein detaillierteres Bild der Einflussgrößen des Gender Pay Gap zu erhalten, werden diese individuellen und betrieblichen Merkmale sowie eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Faktoren zudem im Rahmen einer Oaxaca-Blinder-Zerlegung betrachtet. Diese zeigt im erklärten Teil, dass vor allem die berufliche Orientierung von Frauen und Männern, geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede in der Qualifikation, die betriebliche Lohnstruktur und die Lohnhöhe nach wie vor entscheidende Einflussfaktoren auf die Höhe der Lohnlücke sind. Der unerklärte Teil der Zerlegung entspricht dem bereinigten Gender Pay Gap. Dieser fällt im Gegensatz zu Deutschland, in Ostdeutschland und Sachsen höher aus als der unbereinigte Gender Pay Gap. Frauen müssten aufgrund der messbaren, lohnbestimmenden Faktoren in Ostdeutschland und Sachsen somit mehr als Männer verdienen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Zhao, Qiongda & Zhuo Zhang (2026): Unveiling hidden impacts: heterogeneous effects of extended parental leave on mothers’ labour outcomes*. In: Applied Economics, S. 1-16. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2026.2624050

Abstract

"This paper examines the impact of extended parental leave benefits in Canada on mothers’ earnings following childbirth. Weexploit a sharp policy cut-off and implement a regression discontinuity design combined with a difference-in-differences approach (RD-DD), comparing mothers who gave birth shortly before and after the reform. We find that the extension of cash benefits leads to a reduction in mothers’earnings in the short run, reflecting delayed returns to work. In contrast, medium- and long-run effects on average earnings are small and statistically insignificant. These null mean effects, however, conceal substantial heterogeneity. Quantile regression estimates show that extending cash benefits without extending job protection generates sizable earnings losses among high-earning mothers, whereas extending job protection substantially mitigates these losses and yields positive effects for middle-earning mothers. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of job protection in parental leave design, suggesting that it helps high-earning mothers maintain career continuity while providing greater stability for middle earners." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Zhu, Ning, Aleksandra Gaweł & Timo Toikko (2026): Motherhood and Systemic Gender Pay Gap Faced by Women in European Union Countries. In: Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Jg. 47, H. 1, S. 160-178. DOI:10.1007/s10834-025-10072-6

Abstract

"Despite progress in reducing gender pay disparities, wage inequalities remain persistent across European Union (EU) countries, and due to motherhood penalties, the situation for mothers is even more disadvantageous compared to childless women. As women are often perceived through the lens of stereotypical maternal roles—even if they are not yet mothers—these expectations frequently intersect with personal choices as well as the embodied and material realities of caregiving. In this study, we examine the impact of motherhood and its interactions with other factors on the gender pay gap from a macro-level systemic perspective, using panel data from 27 EU countries between 2006 and 2022. Key findings indicate that motherhood-related factors such as fertility rates and the timing of childbirth have complex relationships with the pay gap, often interacting through education and flexible work arrangements. While delayed childbirth reduces gender pay gaps by mitigating career interruptions, structural and cultural supports are critical factors in alleviating wage penalties. We also confirm the significant influence of women’s educational attainment, employment rate, and flexibility in employment on wage disparities. The study underscores the importance of integrating family-friendly policies, promoting flexible yet equitable work conditions, and addressing biases surrounding motherhood to achieve gender pay equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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-Wysocka, Katarzyna Bech & Magdalena Smyk (2025): Heuristics and Signals: Experimental Evidence on Information and Wage Discrimination. (GRAPE working paper / Group for Research in Applied Economics 106), Warszawa, 27 S.

Abstract

"Statistical discrimination theory explains wage differences between demographic groups by referring to differences in group averages or heuristic-based decision-making. This study investigates whether providing employers with accurate information about individual productivity affects wage-setting practices. We replicate a labor market scenario in which employers determine wages based on perceived productivity differences between male and female workers. Our experimental findings suggest that statistical discrimination influences initial wage decisions, but access to individual performance data reduces reliance on group-based heuristics. The dominant strategy when the actual information about performance is to share the resources according to contribution. We observe that in tasks where women statistically outperform, higher-scoring individuals tend to receive slightly less than their proportional contribution, whereas in tasks where men perform better, they tend to receive slightly more than their contribution. Furthermore, we show that with only statistical information, significant gender-based wage discrimination aligned with performance stereotypes occurs, but there is no gender discrimination under full information about performance. Our results contribute to the broader discussion on labour market inequalities and approaches to reducing statistical discrimination." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Abendroth-Sohl, Anja, Ann-Christin Bächmann, Alexandra Mellies & Kevin Ruf (2025): Die Qual der Wahl? Soziale Strukturierungen der tariflichen Wahlmöglichkeit zwischen Zeit und Geld. In: WSI-Mitteilungen, Jg. 78, H. 1, S. 22-29., 2025-11-01. DOI:10.5771/0342-300X-2025-1-22

Abstract

"Immer mehr Beschäftigte sehen sich mit Vereinbarkeitskonflikten zwischen Privatem und Beruflichem konfrontiert. Entsprechend hat der Wunsch nach mehr Mitbestimmung in der Gestaltung der individuellen Arbeitszeit gesellschaftlich stark an Bedeutung gewonnen. Vor diesem Hintergrund haben einige Gewerkschaften eine tarifliche Wahloption durchgesetzt, die es Beschäftigten erlaubt, sich jährlich zwischen mehr Zeit oder mehr Geld zu entscheiden. Dieser Beitrag untersucht, inwieweit die Wahl von mehr Zeit anstelle von mehr Geld sozial strukturiert ist; er berücksichtigt dabei Unterschiede bei der Wahl von Zeit sowie die dahinterliegenden Motive zwischen Männern und Frauen mit und ohne Kinder unter 14 Jahren im Haushalt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku, © Nomos)

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Acero, Isabel & Nuria Alcalde (2025): Gender pay gap among non-executive directors in Spanish boards. In: Applied Economics, S. 1-13. DOI:10.1080/00036846.2025.2499209

Abstract

"This study focuses on the existence or not of a gender pay gap (GPG) among non-executive directors (NEDs) in Spanish boards. For this purpose, we used a sample covering 4,018 positions/year for NEDs in 57 Spanish listed firms over a 10-year period (2013–2022). The results obtained suggest that, controlling for individual characteristics of the directors, the type of position held as well as the features of the company and its corporate governance system, female NEDs receive approximately 11% less remuneration than their male counterparts. Therefore, our findings do not support the idea that female directors are a scarce resource that firms compete for and reward. The results also highlight the need to differentiate by categories of directors when analysing the GPG in the board. In fact, we find that the GPG is higher for proprietary directors (around 18%) than for independent directors (around 6%). In terms of practical implications, our results may be of interest to policy-makers who are considering gender equity policies to break the glass ceiling." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Adams, Abi, Kotaro Hara, Kristy Milland & Chris Callison-Burch (2025): The Gender Wage Gap in an Online Labor Market: The Cost of Interruptions. In: The Review of Economics and Statistics, Jg. 107, H. 1, S. 55-64. DOI:10.1162/rest_a_01282

Abstract

"This paper analyzes gender differences in working patterns and wages on Amazon Mechanical Turk, a popular online labor platform. Using information on 2 million tasks, we find no gender differences in task selection nor experience. Nonetheless, women earn 20% less per hour on average. Gender differences in working patterns are a significant driver of this wage gap. Women are more likely to interrupt their working time on the platform with consequences for their task completion speed. A follow-up survey shows that the gender differences in working patterns and hourly wages are concentrated among workers with children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © MIT Press Journals) ((en))

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Afonso, António & M. Carmen Blanco-Arana (2025): The persistence of gender pay and employment gaps in European countries. In: Comparative Economic Studies, Jg. 67, H. 2, S. 326-354. DOI:10.1057/s41294-025-00252-6

Abstract

"We assess the factors that influence the gender pay gap and gender employment gap across an unbalanced panel of 31 European countries over the period 2000–2022, and estimate a system generalized method of moment model (GMM). We find that tertiary education reduces gender pay gap, and part-time and temporary contracts significantly increase this gap. Moreover, part-time reduces significantly gender employment gap, and both secondary and tertiary education as well. Additionally, for countries with GDP per capita below the sample mean, temporary work and part-time work significantly increases the gender pay gap. Nevertheless, for both group of countries (below and above GDP per capita sample mean), temporary work increases, whereas part-time work decreases the gender employment gap, highlighting the importance of being working or not. Finally, in higher income countries, education is the crucial determinant in reducing these gaps. Results are robust with fixed effects models." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Alfitian, Jakob, Marvin Deversi & Dirk Sliwka (2025): Closing the Gender Gap in Salary Increases: Evidence from a Field Experiment on Promoting Pay Equity. In: Journal of labor economics. DOI:10.1086/739021

Abstract

"We present a natural field experiment on promoting pay equity through simple modifications to the salary review process involving 623 middle managers and 8,951 subordinate employees of a large technology firm. We first document a gender gap not only in salary levels but also in salary increases. Our treatments provide for a gender-blind reallocation of the salary increase budget available to middle managers aimed at promoting pay equity, along with different variants of a corresponding decision guidance. We show that the budget reallocation combined with an explicit decision guidance, while still leaving middle managers discretion in allocating the budget, can completely eliminate the gender gap in salary increases. The treatments also do not appear to undermine the desired performance differentiation in salary increases. We thus show that simple modifications to the salary review process can go a long way toward achieving pay equity by preventing gender gaps from widening throughout employees' careers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Alon, Titan, Sena Coskun & Jane Olmstead‑Rumsey (2025): Gender Divergence in Sectors of Work. (IAB-Discussion Paper 11/2025), Nürnberg, 44 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2511

Abstract

"Im letzten halben Jahrhundert kam es in vielen Bereichen des Arbeitsmarktes, darunter Arbeitszeit, Einkommen und Berufe, zu einer weitgehenden Annäherung der Geschlechter. Diese Studie zeigt jedoch, dass sich die Beschäftigungssektoren von Männern und Frauen im gleichen Zeitraum tatsächlich auseinanderentwickelt haben. Wir zerlegen den Anstieg der sektoralen Segregation in drei Faktoren: veränderte Präferenzen, Diskriminierung und Technologien. Veränderte Beschäftigungspräferenzen verheirateter Frauen sind der wichtigste Faktor und erklären 59% des Anstiegs der Segregation. Diese veränderten Präferenzen verringern auch die geschlechtsspezifische Einkommenslücke, da die von Frauen geschätzten nicht‑lohnbezogenen Annehmlichkeiten in höher bezahlten Sektoren zunehmend an Bedeutung gewinnen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Andrews, Rhys (2025): Social Equity in Municipally Owned Corporations: Do Women in the Boardroom Make a Difference to the Gender Pay Gap? In: Public Administration, Jg. 103, H. 4, S. 979-991. DOI:10.1111/padm.13045

Abstract

"Representative bureaucracy theory posits that the presence of less-advantaged social groups in public leadership positions is an important driver of social equity among the recipients of public services and the public servants who provide them. To evaluate whether active representation can lead to improvements in social equity within arms-length public service organizations, this article presents an analysis of the relationship between women in the boardroom and the gender pay gap in 102 large municipally owned corporations (MOCs) in England for a 6-year period (2017–2022). The findings suggest that MOCs led by female chief executive officers (CEOs) have a lower pay gap between male and female employees. The presence of more women directors on MOC boards is also negatively related to the pay gap, especially in MOCs led by male CEOs. The findings highlight the importance of board gender representation to address social equity in arms-length public service organizations." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Antoni, Manfred, Hans-Dieter Gerner, Robert Jäckle & Stefan Schwarz (2025): The Gender Pay Gap in University Student Internships. In: German Economic Review. DOI:10.1515/ger-2024-0130

Abstract

"Internships are an important and often mandatory part of academic education. They offer valuable insights into the labor market but can also expose students to negative aspects of the working world, such as gender pay disparities. We provide first evidence of a gender pay gap in mandatory internships, with women earning up to 21 % less per hour than men. This gap is not due to women choosing higher-quality internships over higher pay. Factors such as field of study, risk aversion, competitiveness, the focus of the internship, and firm characteristics account for a large share of the gap. Further analyses show that the internship pay gap is broadly similar to the wage gap at labor market entry among graduates. We discuss potential mechanisms through which the internship pay gap may be related to the entry wage gap." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © DeGruyter Brill) ((en))

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Baggio, Marianna & Christine Aumayr-Pintar (2025): Equal value, equal pay: Concepts, mechanisms and implementation towards gender pay equity. (Eurofound research report / European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions), Luxembourg, 71 S. DOI:10.2806/0066968

Abstract

"This report presents an in-depth compilation of evidence and analysis on how the EU’s principle of equal pay for the same work and work of equal value can be implemented in practice, with a particular focus on work of equal value – thus, pay equity. According to this principle, when two jobs can be regarded as equivalent in terms of skills, effort, responsibilities and working conditions, they should be remunerated equally. But how can such equivalence be established? Beyond general guidance provided by national legislation and court interpretations, the EU Pay Transparency Directive, to be incorporated into national law by June 2026, requires companies to ensure that, among other key obligations, their pay structures are based on objective, gender-neutral and bias-free job evaluation methods. This report moves from principle to practice by bridging legal requirements, best practices and workplace realities, drawing on 16 case studies that examine the practical application of tools and methods, company-level initiatives and the role of social partners in implementing job classification reviews within sectoral collective agreements. Although the report highlights success stories, significant challenges persist. The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound) is a tripartite European Union Agency established in 1975. Its role is to provide knowledge in the area of social, employment and work-related policies according to Regulation (EU) 2019/127." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bamieh, Omar & Lennart Ziegler (2025): Can Wage Transparency Alleviate Gender Sorting in the Labor Market? In: Economic Policy, Jg. 40, H. 122, S. 401-426. DOI:10.1093/epolic/eiae025

Abstract

"A large share of the gender wage gap can be attributed to occupation and employer choices. If workers are not well informed about these pay differences, increasing wage transparency might alleviate the gender gap. We test this hypothesis by examining the impact of mandatory wage postings. In 2011, Austria introduced a policy that requires firms to provide a minimum wage offer in job postings. To compare the pay prospects of vacancies before and after the introduction, we predict posted wages using detailed occupation-firm cells, which explain about 75 percent of the variation in wage postings. While we estimate a substantial gender gap of 15 log points, mandatory wage postings do not affect gender sorting into better-paying occupations and firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Barnes, Spencer (2025): Within-firm job description wage gaps: The implications for financial performance. In: Australian journal of management, S. 1-31. DOI:10.1177/03128962251372865

Abstract

"We study within-firm and job-type wage gaps arising from words in job descriptions using a natural language processing technique (word2vec) on proprietary US job-level wage data from publicly traded companies spanning two decades. Analyzing nearly half a million job descriptions, we find that stereotypically feminine descriptions correspond to lower wages compared to masculine ones, as they require fewer years of experience and less education. At the firm level, wider job description wage gaps—where masculine descriptions earn more—are associated with higher firm value. A difference-in-differences design around Executive Order 13672 supports a plausibly causal interpretation, and the effect is strongest in politically sensitive firms. The wage premium for masculine descriptions is linked to a higher share of skilled jobs, greater productivity, and increased investment." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Batbayar, Egshiglen, Christoph Breunig, Peter Haan & Boryana Ilieva (2025): Quantile Selection in the Gender Pay Gap. (arXiv papers 2511.16187), 48 S.

Abstract

"We propose a new approach to estimate selection-corrected quantiles of the gender wage gap. Our method employs instrumental variables that explain variation in the latent variable but, conditional on the latent process, do not directly affect selection. We provide semiparametric identification of the quantile parameters without imposing parametric restrictions on the selection probability, derive the asymptotic distribution of the proposed estimator based on constrained selection probability weighting, and demonstrate how the approach applies to the Roy model of labor supply. Using German administrative data, we analyze the distribution of the gender gap in full-time earnings. We find pronounced positive selection among women at the lower end, especially those with less education, which widens the gender gap in this segment, and strong positive selection among highly educated men at the top, which narrows the gender wage gap at upper quantiles." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Blau, Francine D. (2025): Gender Inequality in the Labor Market: Continuing Progress? In: ILR review, Jg. 78, H. 2, S. 275-303. DOI:10.1177/00197939241308844

Abstract

"This article examines the trends in women ’s economic outcomes in the United States, focusing primarily on labor force participation, occupational attainment, and the gender wage gap. Considerable progress was made on all dimensions prior to the 1990s followed by a slowing or stalling of gains thereafter, with a plateauing of female labor force participation trends and a slowing of women’s occupational and wage convergence with men. The author considers the likelihood that progress in narrowing gender gaps will resume in these areas, and concludes it is unlikely without policy intervention. She then considers new policy initiatives to address work–family issues and labor market discrimination that may help to increase female labor force participation and narrow gender inequities in the labor market." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bohnet, Iris, Oliver P. Hauser & Ariella S. Kristal (2025): Can gender and race dynamics in performance appraisals be disrupted? The case of social influence. In: Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Jg. 235. DOI:10.1016/j.jebo.2025.107032

Abstract

"We document gender and race dynamics in performance evaluations in a multi-national company, examining the impacts of a feature of the performance appraisal process: managers’ knowledge of employees’ self-evaluations. Generally, (White) women were rated higher than men and people of color were rated lower than White employees. Women of color gave themselves the lowest self-ratings. When self-evaluations were unavailable due to a quasi-exogenous shock, manager and self-ratings were less correlated. However, gender and race gaps remained unchanged as managers anchored on previous years’ ratings. Based onsuggestive evidence, women of color without an employment history benefitted from their self-ratings not being shared." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Brandl, Julia, David G. Allen, Christian Grund & Anna Sender (2025): A new look at pay disclosure: Employee initiatives, multiple perspectives, and voids in legal rules. In: German Journal of Human Resource Management, Jg. 39, H. 3, S. 179-197. DOI:10.1177/23970022251346594

Abstract

"This article introduces the special issue on Pay disclosure: Implications for Human Resource Management in the German Journal of Human Resource Management. Previous research largely assumed employer agency in designing pay disclosure practices. Recent legislation regarding pay disclosure in many countries and an increasing role of employees have to be considered, though. Differences in actors’ attitudes toward pay disclosure and voids in legal rules then lead to multiple perspectives on the nature of pay disclosure. Based on the articles in this special issue, we outline how these themes constitute a challenge for managing actors and an exciting research opportunity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Broadway, Barbara & Guyonne Kalb (2025): The Effect of Separation on Poverty and Employment. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 18343), Bonn, 75 S.

Abstract

"Using 2001–2021 HILDA survey data, this paper estimates how separation or divorce affects poverty and employment trajectories over five years after the event. A difference-in-differences approach compares separated individuals with couples who stayed together, accounting for recent and long-term labour market history prior to separation. Women with preschool children face a 19.9 percentage point higher poverty risk in the first year, which fades within three years. Women with older or no children experience smaller but longer-lasting poverty increases. Pre-separation employment strongly moderates effects: non-employed women face much higher poverty risks than employed women who have similar poverty risks to men. Men's poverty impacts are smaller and shorter-lived. Separation barely changes women's employment but slightly reduces men's employment, especially those with preschool children." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Brunsen, Hendrik, Britta Busse, Kevin Wolnik & Lisbeth Wenzel (2025): Gute Arbeit in Berlin. Ergebnisse einer Beschäftigtenbefragung im Rahmen des ‚DGB-Index Gute Arbeit‘. Berlin, 119 S.

Abstract

"Die Ergebnisse zeigen, an welchen Stellen Beschäftigte ausgebremst oder benachteiligt werden und wo gewonnene Energie eingebüßt wird, aber auch was Beschäftigte an ihrer Arbeit schätzen und woraus sie Motivation und Antrieb ziehen. Dazu wurden beispielsweise Fragen zu den Themen Personalmangel, Einkommen und flexible Arbeitszeiten gestellt und diese unter anderem nach Gleichstellungskriterien ausgewertet. Als Senatorin für Arbeit, Soziales, Gleichstellung, Integration, Vielfalt und Antidiskriminierung ist es mir besonders wichtig, arbeitsmarktrelevante Verbesserungen anzustoßen. Für weitergehende Überlegungen und Diskussionen bieten die vorliegenden Daten eine hervorragende Grundlage. Wobei auch klar ist: Es geht um mehr als Zahlen - es geht um Menschen. Aus den Ergebnissen geht hervor, dass 47 Prozent der Beschäftigten in Berlin in (sehr) hohem Maß von den Folgen des Personalmangels betroffen sind. Besonders deutlich wird dieser Mangel in den Gesundheitsberufen, den Informatikberufen, den naturwissenschaftlichen Berufen sowie in den Verkehrs-, Logistik-, Sicherheits- und Reinigungsberufen bemerkbar. Für Beschäftigte heißt dies häufig zusätzliche Aufgaben und Überlastung, was zur Verschlechterung der Arbeitsbedingungen und der Arbeitsqualität sowie zu sinkender Arbeitszufriedenheit führen kann. Die Umbrüche durch Digitalisierung, demographischen Wandel und die klimagerechte Transformation von Wirtschaft und Arbeitswelt werden branchenbezogene Personal- und Fachkräftebedarfe weiter erhöhen. Der Senat arbeitet auch vor diesem Hintergrund an einer umfassenden Fachkräftestrategie, die Unternehmen und Beschäftigte bei der Transformation unterstützt, bisher ungenutzte Fachkräftepotentiale erschließt und die Aus- und Weiterbildung künftiger Fachkräfte befördern soll. Schlechte Arbeitsbedingungen und Unzufriedenheit der Beschäftigten haben unterschiedliche Ursachen. Eine der am häufigsten angegebenen Belastungsgründe ist eine nicht auskömmliche Bezahlung. Insgesamt 78 Prozent der Befragten, die ihr Einkommen als nicht ausreichend einschätzen, fühlen sich davon (eher) stark belastet. Männer fühlen sich von geringerer Bezahlung stärker belastet. Frauen sind aber in der Regel diejenigen, die durchschnittlich weniger Einkommen erzielen. So lag der Gender-Pay-Gap 2024 immer noch bei 16 Prozent. Um die Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf besser meistern zu können, sind neben der Bezahlung auch alternative Unterstützungsangebote von Arbeitgebenden wie die Nutzung von Homeoffice oder flexible Arbeitszeiten insbesondere für Beschäftigte, die Care Arbeit leisten, sehr wichtig. Vornehmlich in Bezug auf Homeoffice ist hier in über der Hälfte der Betriebe noch Luft nach oben. Ein umso erfreulicheres Ergebnis der Befragung ist, dass sich insgesamt nur sehr wenige Befragte Sorgen um ihre berufliche Zukunft machen. Es ist besonders wichtig, in Mitarbeitende zu investieren und sie weiterzubilden, um ihnen Fähigkeiten im Umgang mit neuen Entwicklungen wie künstlicher Intelligenz mitzugeben." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Burke, Vanessa, Ho Kwan Cheung & Lisa M. Finkelstein (2025): Exploring midlife identity negotiations in the context of the gender career gap: an interdisciplinary conceptual framework. In: Work, Aging and Retirement, S. 1-21. DOI:10.1093/workar/waae023

Abstract

"The gender gaps in career outcomes (e.g., pay, promotion, leadership opportunities) observably widen during mid-career, yet research often neglects considerations of gendered age identities in explaining this disparity. The present paper addresses this through an integrative review of interdisciplinary literature and proposes a novel theoretical framework that combines midlife development and gender identity negotiations to better understand mid-career disparities. In this review, we (1) adopt an inter-categorical approach to explore how workers navigate the overlapping systems of gender and age in the workplace, (2) critically review midlife development literature, highlighting significant oversights in organizational research, and (3) we introduce a process model of midlife gendered identity negotiations. We detail the model, describing the antecedents, mechanisms, and outcomes of gendered aging identity negotiations on mid-career inequities. We provide a foundation for advancing research and designing interventions to address gender disparities in mid-career outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Bächmann, Ann-Christin, Andreas Filser & Corinna Frodermann (2025): Väter, die länger in Elternzeit sind, arbeiten auch längerfristig weniger (Serie "Equal Pay Day 2025"). In: IAB-Forum H. 07.04.2025. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20250407.01

Abstract

"Die Verdienste von Vätern, die nach der Geburt ihres ersten Kindes Elternzeit nehmen, steigen in den darauffolgenden Jahren im Schnitt etwas langsamer als die Verdienste von Vätern, die auf Elternzeit verzichten. Dies hängt stark damit zusammen, dass insbesondere Väter, die mehr als zwei Monate in Elternzeit gehen, danach zum Beispiel häufiger in Teilzeit arbeiten." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Böheim, René, David Pichler & Christine Zulehner (2025): Gendered labour market dynamics across generations: Parental and local determinants of the daugther-son pay gap. (Working paper / Department of Economics, Johannes Kepler Universität of Linz 2025-05-00), Linz, 29 S.

Abstract

"We examine how parental and local factors shape the gender pay gap between daughters and sons. Maternal labor market attachment significantly reduces gender disparities as it increases daughters' earnings in adulthood relative to that of sons. We find that maternal employment has minimal effects on pre-parenthood earnings gaps. However, it substantially mitigates post-parenthood disparities as daughters return to the labour market more quickly after childbirth. Paternal employment in manufacturing and construction is linked to larger gender pay gaps and lower likelihoods of sons taking paternity leave. At the municipal level, higher female employment rates and education levels are associated with narrower gender gaps, whereas conservative norms and manufacturing employment exacerbate them." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Caparrós Ruiz, Antonio (2025): Gender wage gap among highly educated workers: some evidence from Spain. In: Journal of Economic Studies, Jg. 52, H. 6, S. 1171-1188. DOI:10.1108/jes-06-2024-0371

Abstract

"Purpose: The study aims to estimate wage models controlled for sample selection bias and apply the traditional Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition to examine the genderwage gap. Design/methodology/Approach: This research provides new evidence concerning the drivers of the gender pay gap for highly educated workers in Spain. Findings: The results show the existence of empirical evidence about the presence of the gender wage gap among tertiary-educated workers. An interesting conclusion is that holding a master’s degree hasa positive impact since it diminishes the unexplained component of the gender pay gap. Research limitations/implications: The survey used only analyses the labor insertion of tertiary-educated workers and its temporal scope does not allow us to examine the evolution of the gender wage gap throughout their careers. Social implications: The findings indicate that there is room for the implementation of policies aimed at diminishing gender inequality in the labor market even for highly educated workers, which could complement the current Spanish labor legislation regulating the gender pay gap in firms. Originality/value: This paper bridges two bodies of the economic literature: human capital returns and the gender wage gap. The data used represent a contribution to the economic literature." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Emerald Group) ((en))

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Checchi, Daniele, Daniel Kreisman & Cecilia García-Peñalosa (2025): The Evolution of Hours Worked and the Gender Wage Gap: Theory and Evidence from Four Countries. (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 18265), Bonn, 36 S.

Abstract

"We consider the contribution of the intensive margin of labor supply (hours worked above zero) to the gender wage gap across four economies (Germany, France, US, UK) over a long time-horizon. We first build a model in which firms offer two wage contracts – one that pays a fixed wage but allows workers to choose their preferred number of hours up to “full time”, and a second in which wages are relative to imperfectly observable productivity but hours can be limitless. The former includes part- and full-time work, while the latter represents a class of workers who often must supply very long hours but who can then earn potentially unlimited remuneration. We then apply a Oaxaca decomposition for part-, full-, and over-time workers to observe the relative contribution of sorting and remuneration across these hours “regimes” over time and across countries. Through this, we show that while female employment in over-time work increased and the gender wage decreased, this was not driven by increasing selection but rather by a decrease in the unexplained portion of the wage gap over time. We conclude by considering the contribution of unions and labor market flexibility to these cross-country differences." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Choi, Youjin, Rachel Margolis & Anders Holm (2025): The Effects of Extended Parental Benefits on Parents’ Employment and Earnings in Canada. In: Demography, Jg. 62, H. 3, S. 879-898. DOI:10.1215/00703370-11958785

Abstract

"Paid parental benefits, with individually earmarked time for mothers and fathers, aim to promote gender equality in labor force participation, wages, and childcare. The Canadian province of Québec expanded parental benefits over and above the federal policy in 2006 with the Québec Parental Insurance Plan (QPIP), which introduced paid paternity leave and lower eligibility criteria as its key features. This policy aimed to increase gender equality by encouraging fathers to use parental benefits and expanding coverage to low-income parents. Using Canadian administrative data and exploiting the policy changes in 2006 as a natural experiment, we examine the effects of Québec's extended parental benefits policy on parents’ employment and earnings over 10 years after the transition to parenthood. First, we find that fathers’ use of parental benefits had positive long-run effects on mothers’ and fathers’ earnings 8–10 years after a first birth. Second, we find that among women with low earnings before the transition to parenthood, QPIP increased the likelihood of employment 1–7 years after a first birth. This article provides the first evidence that a policy dramatically expanding parental benefits and encouraging use among both parents can have long-term positive effects on parents’ labor market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Conroy, Tessa, Jie Wu & Steven Deller (2025): Childcare availability and Women’s earnings in the U.S. In: Review of Economics of the Household. DOI:10.1007/s11150-025-09787-0

Abstract

"Extensive research shows that women earn less than men, and mothers earn less than women without children. In fact, the “motherhood penalty” accounts for much of the remaining gender wage gap. Since having children can reduce women’s earnings, access to childcare may play a crucial role in mitigating this effect and boosting women’s income. In this study we consider descriptive evidence of the relationship between childcare availability, defined geographically at the county level, and local women’s earnings. To account for potential spatial spillovers from childcare markets extending beyond county boundaries, we employ a spatial econometric model. This method is well suited for studying childcare markets which function regionally and their local economic effects, as well as for considering variation in this relationship by rurality. We find that in places with greater access to childcare, annual median women earnings are higher as is the ratio of female to male earnings. We also find evidence of interactions between neighboring places, highlighting the reality of cross-community childcare demand and need for regionally-informed childcare policies." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Coskun, Sena, Hermann Gartner & Ahmet Ali Taskin (2025): Rent Sharing and the Gender Bargaining Gap: Evidence from the Banking Sector. (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20752), London, 45 S.

Abstract

"Wir nutzen den Wegfall staatlicher Bankgarantien in Deutschland als quasi-natürliches Experiment, um den Unterschied zwischen Männern und Frauen bei der Verhandlungsmacht abzuschätzen. Anhand umfassender Lohndaten von Bankangestellten, kombiniert mit Finanzinformationen auf Bankebene, stellen wir fest, dass Frauen etwa zwei Drittel der Verhandlungsmacht von Männern haben. Unsere modellbasierte Analyse legt nahe, dass diese geschlechtsspezifische Verhandlungsmacht allein 13 bis 25 Prozent der beobachteten geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnlücke in der Branche ausmacht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine wichtige Ursache der Lohnunterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen: Eine Veränderung der Profitabilität von Firmen kannn die geschlechtsspezifische Lohnlücke verringern, ohne dass sich die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter strukturell verbessert. Dieser Effekt hat erhebliche Auswirkungen auf Branchen mit hohen Profiten und hoher Ungleichheit wie der Finanzbranche, in denen der Modus der Verteilung der Profite männliche Beschäftigte begünstigt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Coskun Dalgic, Sena (2025): Gender convergence in all areas: Is it a myth? In: IAB-Forum H. 29.08.2025, 2025-08-27. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20250829.02

Abstract

"While men and women are increasingly found in the same occupations, a surprising trend has emerged: Sectors are becoming more gender-segregated over time. Are these patterns shaped by discriminatory hiring practices or by individual preferences? Examining this question offers new insights into the complex dynamics behind gendered labour market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Coskun Dalgic, Sena, Hermann Gartner & Ahmet Ali Taskin (2025): Rent Sharing and the Gender Bargaining Gap: Evidence from the Banking Sector. (IAB-Discussion Paper 06/2025), Nürnberg, 40 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.DP.2506

Abstract

"Wir nutzen den Wegfall staatlicher Bankgarantien in Deutschland als quasi-natürliches Experiment, um den Unterschied zwischen Männern und Frauen bei der Verhandlungsmacht abzuschätzen. Anhand umfassender Lohndaten von Bankangestellten, kombiniert mit Finanzinformationen auf Bankebene, stellen wir fest, dass Frauen etwa zwei Drittel der Verhandlungsmacht von Männern haben. Unsere modellbasierte Analyse legt nahe, dass diese geschlechtsspezifische Verhandlungsmacht allein 13 bis 25 Prozent der beobachteten geschlechtsspezifischen Lohnlücke in der Branche ausmacht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine wichtige Ursache der Lohnunterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen: Eine Veränderung der Profitabilität von Firmen kannn die geschlechtsspezifische Lohnlücke verringern, ohne dass sich die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter strukturell verbessert. Dieser Effekt hat erhebliche Auswirkungen auf Branchen mit hohen Profiten und hoher Ungleichheit wie der Finanzbranche, in denen der Modus der Verteilung der Profite männliche Beschäftigte begünstigt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Darvas, Zsolt & Nina Ruer (2025): Gender wealth inequality in the European Union: a distributional perspective. (Working paper / Bruegel 2025,26), Brüssel, 47 S. DOI:10.64153/kgcu4277

Abstract

"This paper investigates gender-related disparities in wealth in European Union countries using the 2010-2021 waves of the European Central Bank’s Household Finance and Consumption Survey (HFCS). To address the difficulty of within-household wealth allocation and provide a cleaner comparison of men and women’s wealth positions, we focus on single, never-married individuals aged 25-65, without dependants. A full-sample regression controlling for demographic, labour market and socioeconomic characteristics does not reveal a statistically significant gender wealth gap in the EU overall, or in most EU countries. When examining the wealth gap against wealth distribution, we find negligible gaps among the less wealthy. However, we find significant gaps among the middle class and the wealthiest individuals. This distributional disparity was barely visible in 2010 but had become pronounced by 2021, suggesting that gender-based wealth disparities have widened over time. Men are more likely to own property, operate businesses and invest in risky financial assets, which are all major drivers of wealth. By contrast, women hold more bank deposits and low-risk assets. Although women have higher educational attainment, which is typically associated with greater wealth, this advantage does not fully translate into financial outcomes. Finally, we document substantial cross-country differences, possibly shaped by cultural norms, institutional settings, labour market histories and inheritance regimes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Demiral, Elif E., Macie Addley & Erin Taylor (2025): Closing the gender negotiation gap: The power of entitlements, In: Journal of Economic Psychology, Jg. 106. DOI:10.1016/j.joep.2024.102786

Abstract

"Women are less likely to negotiate for their labor market outcomes than men and this finding is linked to the gender gaps in economic outcomes. Through a wage negotiation experiment, we investigate how entitlements influence gender differences in negotiation likelihood. We manipulate the formation of entitlements by employing different hiring methods. Our results reveal that when the hiring process is based on luck (random treatment), men are more prone to negotiate than women. In the condition where the hiring process lacks transparency (unknown treatment), the gender gap declines and remains muted. When the hiring process is transparently grounded on merit (entitlement treatment), women react by displaying higher negotiation likelihood, and the gender gap in negotiation not only declines but reverses in direction. These findings underscore the potential of transparent and merit-based recruitment practices in mitigating gender disparities within labor market outcomes." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))

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Detemple, Jonas (2025): Partnerships as signposts? The role of spatial mobility in gendered earnings benefits of graduates. In: Advances in life course research, Jg. 63. DOI:10.1016/j.alcr.2024.100656

Abstract

"This study analyzes the gender-specific impact of spatial mobility on earnings after graduation from higher education, extending previous research on graduates’ mobility benefits, which has largely ignored gender-specific mechanisms. Based on household economic and gender role considerations, this study argues that partnerships are associated with solidifying gender differences in mobility-related earnings benefits. The study uses data from the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS), Starting Cohort First-Year Students (SC5), and applies entropy balancing weights to account for the self-selection of mobile graduates. General linear models show a weak correlation between overal graduate mobility and higher earnings and that gender differences are rather small and depend on the type of mobility. However, looking at the role of partnerships, female graduates benefit significantly less from short-distance mobility when cohabiting with a partner than their non-cohabiting counterparts, while cohabiting male graduates benefit significantly more from long-distance mobility. The findings contribute to the literature by highlighting the crucial role of partnerships in the gendered mobility benefits of graduates." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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Diallo, Yaya, Fabian Lange & Laetitia Renée (2025): Can Paternity Leave Reduce the Gender Earnings Gap? (IZA discussion paper / Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit 17624), Bonn, 38 S.

Abstract

"This paper examines the impact of paternity leave on the gender gap in labor market outcomes. Utilizing administrative data from Canadian tax records, we analyze the introduction of Quebec's 2006 paternity leave policy, which offers five weeks of paid leave exclusively to fathers. Using mothers and fathers of children born around the reform, we estimate how the policy impacted labor market outcomes up to 10 years following birth. The reform significantly increased fathers' uptake of parental leave and reduced their earnings immediately after the reform. However, in the medium to long-run, we find that the reform did not impact earnings, employment, or the probability of being employed in a high-wage industry for either parent. We for instance find a 95%-CI for the effect on average female earnings 3-10 years following the reform ranging from -2.2 to +1.7%. Estimates of effects on other outcomes and for males are similarly precise zeros. There is likewise no evidence that the reform changed social norms around care-taking and family responsibilities." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Diehl, Claudia, Julia Lang, Ole Brüggemann & Susanne Strauss (2025): Is My Wage Fair? Validating Fairness Perceptions among Women and Men. In: Socius, Jg. 11, S. 1-21., 2025-07-22. DOI:10.1177/23780231251366126

Abstract

"The authors examine gender differences in perceptions of the fairness of one’s own pay. This work differs from previous studies, as the authors not only assess whether women are as likely as men to perceive their pay as unfair at the same absolute wage levels. Instead, they use an innovative methodology based on linked employer-employee data. This makes it possible to compare subjective perceptions of (un)fair pay with the predicted pay of comparable others with the same individual-, work-, occupation-, and firm-related characteristics. The authors use the measurement of how closely a person’s pay aligns with the predicted pay of comparable others as a strictly empirical indicator of whether someone’s pay is fair. Overall, women are as likely as men to perceive a fair wage as unfair or an unfair wage as fair. Although the data at hand do not make it possible to explore the causes of this, or to assess whether women and men used to differ more in their perceptions of fairness, the authors speculate that women today may be more aware of the societal debate about gender-based wage discrimination, and their perceptions of appropriate compensation may be less influenced by gendered comparison groups and gender status beliefs than previous research has suggested." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © SAGE) ((en))

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Doan, Tinh, Liana Leach & Lyndall Strazdins (2025): The Economic Costs of Men's Long Work Hours for Women: Evidence on the Gender Wage Earnings Gap from Australia and Germany. In: Social indicators research, Jg. 179, H. 2, S. 1073-1100. DOI:10.1007/s11205-025-03647-1

Abstract

"Women’s earnings inequality persists, despite policy efforts to reduce discrimination and gender bias. Gender gaps in earnings, however, are a function of hours worked as well as wage rates, and reflect gendered short and long work hour patterns. Within households, how partners exchange time is a crucial driver of hours worked yet this is rarely incorporated into analysis of gender earning gaps. Using a two-stage instrumental variable Oaxaca- Blinder decomposition we model earnings gaps as a function of own and partner hours on and off the job. This enables us to estimate what the gender gap in hours and earnings would look like without a gendered time ‘subsidy’ or ‘borrowing’ in the home. We studied dual-earner households in two countries, Australia and Germany, finding a weekly earnings gap of AUD$536 and €400. This was accompanied by a weekly work hour gap of 12 h in Australia and 13 in Germany. When we accounted for the influence of partner’s hours (paid or unpaid), work hour gaps reduce to 5.1 h in Australian households (58% reduction), and to 6.9 h in German (47% reduction). In effect, women would work 3 to 4 h more each week, and men’s long hours would reduce, narrowing the gender earnings gaps by 43% in Australia and 25% in Germany, if time ‘subsidies’ in the home were eliminated. Our analysis reveals the economic cost to women long work hour cultures impose." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Springer-Verlag) ((en))

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Dressel, Joanna, Paul Attewell, Liza Reisel & Kjersti Misje Østbakken (2025): Characteristics or Returns: Understanding Gender Pay Inequality among College Graduates in the USA. In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 39, H. 1, S. 185-201. DOI:10.1177/09500170241245329

Abstract

"Explanations for the persistent pay disparity between similarly qualified men and women vary between women’s different and devalued work characteristics and specific processes that result in unequal wage returns to the same characteristics. This article investigates how the gender wage gap is affected by gender differences in detailed work activities among full-time, year-round, college-graduate workers in the US using decomposition analysis in the National Survey of College Graduates. Differences in men’s and women’s characteristics account for a majority of the gender wage gap. Additionally, men and women receive different returns to several characteristics: occupational composition, marriage and work activities. While men are penalized more than women for having teaching as their primary work activity, women receive lower rewards for primary work activities such as finance and computer programming. The findings suggest that even with men and women becoming more similar on several characteristics, unequal returns to those characteristics will stall progress towards equality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Ehab, Maye & Fatma Mossad (2025): Informal employment in the health sector: Examining gender disparities. In: International Journal of Social Welfare, Jg. 34, H. 2, 2024-09-20. DOI:10.1111/ijsw.12704

Abstract

"This paper investigates the association between informal employment as a form of non-standard employment and the prevalence of in-work poverty for women in the health sector. We measured in-work poverty using a binary indicator that provides information on whether an individual has earnings above or below the low earnings threshold. The indicator takes into account household size and whether other household members are also in paid work. Using data from the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey for the years 2012 and 2018 and logit models, we found that being employed within the health sector increased the likelihood of in-work poverty among non-standard employees, both men and women. However, higher risks of in-work poverty were witnessed among women working informally in the health sector compared to other sectors. This increased risk was particularly observed when comparing non-standard employment in the health sector to non-standard employment in non-health sectors. Furthermore, marital status plays a critical role in economic wellbeing, with never-married women being more susceptible to in-work poverty compared to ever-married women." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Wiley) ((en))

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Farré, Lídia, Libertad González, Claudia Hupkau & Jenifer Ruiz-Valenzuela (2025): Paternity leave in Spain. In: SERIEs, Jg. 16, H. 3-4, S. 749-784. DOI:10.1007/s13209-025-00320-1

Abstract

"Between 2017 and 2021, Spain progressively extended paternity leave from 2 to 16 weeks, equalizing it with maternity leave and introducing mandatory weeks. A 2018 reform also allowed fathers to split their leave. Using administrative data on all leave permits since 2016, we analyze trends in paternity leave take-up. Following the introduction of mandatory leave, the share of fathers taking leave increased by around 20 percentage points, and most now use nearly the full entitlement. The share opting to split leave has steadily grown, surpassing 50% by 2023. However, this behavior shows marked heterogeneity: While overall uptake is uniform across groups, leave-splitting is far more common among higher-income fathers and more prevalent in certain sectors. Spain’s experience illustrates how policy design can significantly increase paternity leave usage, though workplace flexibility and income-related constraints shape how fathers use that time." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fraja, Gianni de & Jozsef Sakovics (2025): Discrimination Spillovers, Glass Ceilings and Pay Gaps. (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20056), London, 59 S.

Abstract

"This paper is a theoretical analysis of the consequences of workplace discrimination. We prove that discrimination against a group at lower levels of the hierarchy affects the pay of members of the same group at higher levels, leading to a "pay gap" relative to non-discriminated workers. These spillovers in turn induce firms to alter the match between workers and jobs for the discriminated group, potentially leading to a "glass ceiling". The phenomenon can occur even in firms where "equal pay for equal jobs" appears to be adhered to. The explanation is based on the standard participation and incentive constraints: the need to compensate workers for the direct discrimination they suffer, to induce them to work, and the need to maintain pay differentials between job levels, to provide effort incentives. We end the paper showing that neither competition among workers, nor competition among firms for workers eliminates these spillovers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Fredriksson, Peter, Dogan Gülümser & Lena Hensvik (2025): Outside Job Opportunities and the Gender Gap in Pay. (RF Berlin - CReAM Discussion Paper Series 2025,71), Berlin, 48 S.

Abstract

"We show that the wages of men and women are differentially affected by outside options, and that these differential responses contribute to the gender pay gap. We develop a simple model of on-the-job search that integrates two crucial gender differences: job preferences and the propensity to renegotiate wages in response to external offers. Both factors contribute to lower wage responsiveness for women when they receive outside offers, and a negative female-male pay gap. However, women’s job mobility responses vary depending on the underlying mechanism. To empirically test our model’s predictions, we analyze wageand job mobility responses of men and women to external job opportunities, mediated through family networks. Using Swedish register data, we find that improved outside options are associated with higher within-job wage growth for men but not for women. Importantly, we can rule out that these gendered responses arise from differences in the quality of external offers as these are balanced across genders by design. Additionally, men’s and women’s job mobility responses are very similar. In the light of the model, we attribute these findings to differences in negotiation behavior between men and women. Policies encouraging women to bargain in response to outside options may thus be a powerful tool for reducing the remaining within-job gender gap in pay." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Fuchs, Michaela, Antje Weyh & Gabriele Wydra-Somaggio (2025): Die spezifische Berufs- und Betriebsstruktur vor Ort führt zu deutlichen regionalen Unterschieden in der Lohnlücke zwischen Männern und Frauen (Serie "Equal Pay Day 2025"). In: IAB-Forum H. 05.03.2025 Nürnberg. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20250306.02

Abstract

"Frauen in Deutschland verdienen im Schnitt deutlich weniger als Männer. Weniger bekannt ist, dass sich der sogenannte Gender-Pay-Gap zwischen einzelnen Regionen deutlich unterscheidet. So verdienen vollzeitbeschäftigte Männer in Dingolfing-Landau gut 40 Prozent mehr als vollzeitbeschäftigte Frauen, in Dessau-Roßlau 1,2 Prozent weniger. Eine wichtige Erklärung bieten regionale Geschlechterunterschiede in den ausgeübten Berufen und in der Betriebsstruktur vor Ort." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Galego, Aurora (2025): Recent trends in the gender wage gap in Portugal: a distributional analysis. In: Applied Economics Letters, Jg. 32, H. 3, S. 369-372. DOI:10.1080/13504851.2023.2270223

Abstract

"Portugal displays a persistent gender wage gap which increased during the 2010-2013 economic crisis. This paper aims at examining the developments in the gender wage gap for the private sector from 2009 to 2019 using a decomposition across the wage distribution. We conclude that the gap has decreased at the lower and middle quantiles but remains quite wide at the top. The largest part of the gap stems from the structure effect, which suggests persistent discrimination." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gartner, Hermann & Enzo Weber (2025): Die Lohnlücke schrumpft. Ein neuer Lohnmonitor soll aktuellere Daten für Forschung und Politik liefern. Die ersten Ergebnisse sind überraschend. In: Wirtschaftswoche H. 42, S. 35.

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Gartner, Hermann, Bajai Resch & Enzo Weber (2025): Der neue IAB-Lohnmonitor beleuchtet die aktuelle Lohnentwicklung in Deutschland. (IAB-Forschungsbericht 21/2025), Nürnberg, 22 S. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FB.2521

Abstract

"Die Lohnentwicklung ist eine zentrale Größe zur Charakterisierung der Arbeitsmarktentwicklung. Am IAB wird ein Monitor aufgebaut, mit dem die Lohnentwicklung in Deutschland beobachtet wird. Der IAB-Lohnmonitor basiert auf der IAB-Online-Personenbefragung „Arbeiten und Leben in Deutschland“ (IAB-OPAL). IAB-OPAL ist eine webbasierte Personenbefragung des IAB, die arbeitsmarktbezogene Themen abfragt. Es handelt sich um eine quartalsweise Befragung von je circa 7.500 Personen im erwerbsfähigen Alter (18–65 Jahre), in der wechselnde Fragen zu aktuellen Themen gestellt werden. Damit kann die Lohnverteilung auch nach Merkmalen wie Alter, Geschlecht, Ausbildung und Erwerbsumfang – ausgewertet werden. Auf Basis der Befragung lassen sich so zeitnahe Aussagen über die Entwicklung der Lohnungleichheit treffen. Ein Vorteil der Daten zum Beispiel gegenüber der Verdiensterhebung des Statistischen Bundesamts ist, dass bei IAB-OPAL auch der Haushaltskontext vorliegt. So können zum Beispiel Einkommen in Haushalten mit oder ohne Kinder verglichen werden. Ein Vorteil gegenüber Prozessdaten aus der Bundesagentur für Arbeit (wie dem SIAB des IAB) wiederum ist, dass auch die Löhne jenseits der Beitragsbemessungsgrenze sowie die Arbeitszeiten erfasst werden. Wir stellen in diesem Bericht die Datengrundlagen und die Aufbereitungsschritte vor und präsentieren erste Ergebnisse aus dem IAB-Lohnmonitor: So zeigt sich, dass im vierten Quartal 2023 der durchschnittliche Stundenlohn bei 23,54 Euro lag und bis zum zweiten Quartal 2025 auf 25,61 Euro stieg. Zugleich haben sich die Unterschiede zwischen niedrigeren und höheren Löhnen in diesem Zeitraum verringert. So legten die Löhne von Personen ohne Berufsabschluss zuletzt um 13 Prozent zu, die von Personen mit Hochschulabschluss hingegen nur um 5,8 Prozent. Ein Vergleich der Löhne von Männern und Frauen zeigt: Frauen haben im Schnitt der vergangenen vier Quartale 2025 im Durchschnitt um 15,3 Prozent pro Stunde weniger verdient als Männer. Der durchschnittliche Lohn von neu eingestellten Beschäftigten schwankt meist stärker als der von bereits länger Beschäftigten. Dies zeigte sich insbesondere in den ersten Quartalen 2024 und 2025: Die Löhne in länger bestehenden Beschäftigungsverhältnissen sind im ersten Quartal 2025 gegenüber dem Vorjahresquartal um 6,7 Prozent gestiegen, die in neuen Beschäftigungsverhältnissen dagegen um 21,5 Prozent. Im zweiten Quartal lag das Verhältnis nur noch bei 6,2 Prozent zu 7,5 Prozent. Der aktuelle IAB-Lohnmonitor soll in Zukunft mehrmals jährlich erscheinen." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

Zitatform

Gash, Vanessa, Wendy Olsen, Sook Kim & Nadine Zwiener-Collins (2025): Decomposing the barriers to equal pay: examining differential predictors of the gender pay gap by socio-economic group. In: Cambridge Journal of Economics, Jg. 49, H. 4, S. 825-848. DOI:10.1093/cje/beaf025

Abstract

"Our article examines different predictors of the gender pay gap at the mean and for different income groups. Using the United Kingdom Household Panel Survey (UKHLS), we provide a detailed analysis of the effects of individual work histories, with up to 40 years of retrospective data examined alongside other key indicators. Work histories provide a powerful means of measuring the long-term effects of reduced labour force attachment on pay for women and for men. We find that gendered differentials in work-history account for 29% of the gender pay gap at the mean and that the effects of women’s reduced attachment vary by income group. We find men to earn a higher wage penalty to part-time work-histories than women, and find no evidence of a penalty to part-time work more generally in poor households. We conclude that gender equalisation policies need to reflect divergent needs by income group." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gebrewolde, Tewodros M., James Rockey & Akbar Ullah (2025): The global gender gap in labour income. In: Oxford economic papers, Jg. 77, H. 4, S. 1006-1036. DOI:10.1093/oep/gpaf011

Abstract

"This article introduces a new measure of economic gender inequality (EGI) based on the ratio of women’s share of national labor income to men’s. This measure captures both the principles of equal pay for equal work and nondiscrimination. Importantly, it can be calculated from existing data and is comparable between countries and over time. If we simply consider an unweighted average of our measure of EGI, there has been an improvement between 1994 and 2014. However, once we weight countries by population, average EGI has been increasing. Much of the higher EGI in poorer, more populous, countries is explained by the lower rates of female employment in those countries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Gerich, Joachim & Martina Beham-Rabanser (2025): Perceived fairness and legitimacy of parental workplace discrimination. In: Community, work & family, S. 1-27. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2025.2453175

Abstract

"Parental discrimination has been shown to be related to several risks, including impaired health, increased job stress, and decreased job satisfaction, which calls for increased awareness of parental discrimination. This paper analyzes fairness and legitimacy judgments of unequal treatment based on parental status at work and the antecedents that influence these judgments. Stereotypes of symbolic vilification that suggest lower commitment due to caring responsibilities, and symbolic amplification, which refers to rational economic organizational needs, are expected to rationalize discrimination. Moreover, we expect specific values and ideologies to be related to judgments of fairness and legitimacy, mediated by resonance with symbolic vilification and amplification. Analyses are based on survey data from a sample of employees aged between 20 and 45 years (n = 376). Respondents' evaluations of parental discrimination were measured using two fictional cases. The results suggest that greater acceptance of vilifying and amplifying justifications is triggered by a stronger preference for the ideal worker norm and traditional gender role expectations. Women tend to view discrimination as more unfair and illegitimate than men, while men's judgments are more strongly driven by economic reasoning." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Godechot, Olivier, Mirna Safi & Matthew Soener (2025): Organizational Intersectionality: Do Gender and Migration Status Inequalities Reinforce or Offset Each Other in French Workplaces? In: Work, Employment and Society, Jg. 39, H. 6, S. 1463-1485. DOI:10.1177/09500170251348848

Abstract

"This study examines whether organizations with significant pay gaps along one dimension (gender, migration status, class, etc.) tend to exhibit similarly high inequalities along other dimensions, or whether there is a trade-off between inequality dimensions. Using French administrative data, it estimates correlations between class, gender and migrant workplace earnings gaps, and studies how these gaps also relate to a fourth measure of intra-categorical inequality. To ensure robust results, this article introduces innovative methods to address measurement biases that may distort the relationship between earnings gaps. It establishes three key patterns. First, the gender gap is higher in more unequal workplaces. Second, the migrant gap is higher in more equal workplaces. Third, gender and migrant earnings gaps are negatively correlated within workplaces. These results suggest that workplace inequality regimes are shaped by both reinforcing and trade-off dynamics. Finally, this article explores factors influencing these patterns and highlights the role of industries." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Goldberg, Pinelopi, Charles Gottlieb, Somik V. Lall, Meet Mehta, Michael Peters & Aishwarya Lakshmi Ratan (2025): The Global Gender Distortions Index (GGDI). (CEPR discussion paper / Centre for Economic Policy Research 20554), London, 58 S.

Abstract

"The extent to which women participate in the labor market varies greatly across the globe. If such differences reflect distortions that women face in accessing good jobs, they can reduce economic activity through a misallocation of talent. In this paper, we build on Hsieh et al. (2019) to provide a methodology to quantify these productivity consequences. The index we propose, the ”Global Gender Distortions Index (GGDI)”, measures the losses in aggregate productivity that gender-based misallocation imposes. Our index allows us to separately identify labor demand distortions (e.g., discrimination in hiring for formal jobs) from labor supply distortions (e.g., frictions that discourage women’s labor force participation) and can be computed using data on labor income and job types. Our methodology also highlights an important distinction between welfare-relevant misallocation and the consequences on aggregate GDP if misallocation arises between market work and non-market activities. To showcase the versatility of our index, we analyze gender misallocation within countries over time, across countries over the development spectrum, and across local labor markets within countries. We find that misallocation is substantial and that demand distortions account for most of the productivity losses." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Grönqvist, Erik, Yoko Okuyama, Lena Hensvik & Anna Thoresson (2025): Women's labor market opportunities and equality in the household. (Working papers / Institute for Evaluation of Labour Market and Education Policy 2025,11), Uppsala, 57 S.

Abstract

"We study how changes in couples’ relative wages affect the division of childcare.Using a nationwide wage reform that raised pay in the female-dominated teaching profession, we find that closing 25% of the earnings gap between female teachers and their male spouses led to a 12% reduction in the childcare time gap. This result holds when we extend the analysis to major pay raises for women at the population level. Data support the mechanism that women reduce their childcare time when the spouse can step in by working more from home. Policies that address female pay can foster household equality if men have access to flexible work arrangements." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Haan, Peter, Michaela Kreyenfeld, Sarah Schmauk & Tatjana Mika (2025): Rentenansprüche von Frauen bleiben mit steigender Kinderzahl deutlich hinter denen von Männern zurück. In: DIW-Wochenbericht, Jg. 92, H. 12, S. 183-189. DOI:10.18723/diw_wb:2025-12-1

Abstract

"Der Gender Pension Gap, der den Unterschied bei den Rentenansprüchen zwischen Männern und Frauen misst, liegt laut Daten der Deutschen Rentenversicherung im Alter von 60 Jahren bei 32 Prozent. Darüber hinaus zeigt sich auch ein deutlicher Unterschied bei den gesetzlichen Rentenansprüchen zwischen Müttern und kinderlosen Frauen (Motherhood Pension Gap). Diesem Gap wirken die im Jahr 1986 eingeführten und seither mehrfach modifizierten Kindererziehungszeiten entgegen. Die Anrechnung von Kindererziehungszeiten reduziert die Unterschiede der Rentenanwartschaften zwischen kinderlosen Frauen und Müttern zwar deutlich, allerdings nur für die Jahre nach der Geburt. Für die Geburtsjahrgänge 1952 bis 1959 liegt der Motherhood Pension Gap im Alter von 60 Jahren in Westdeutschland bei 26 Prozent: Kindererziehungszeiten können den Rentennachteil von Müttern nicht ausgleichen. Weitere sozial- und steuerpolitische Maßnahmen, die eine gleichberechtigte Aufteilung von Sorge- und Erwerbsarbeit fördern, sind notwendig. Neben dem Ausbau der Kinderbetreuung sind Reformen des Ehegattensplittings und der Minijobs sowie ein Umbau der Arbeitswelt erforderlich, der die Bedürfnisse von Sorgetragenden stärker berücksichtigt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Herrmann, Fiona & Katharina Wrohlich (2025): Gender Pay Gap steigt in allen Bildungsgruppen mit dem Alter stark an. In: DIW-Wochenbericht, Jg. 92, H. 10, S. 131-137. DOI:10.18723/diw_wb:2025-10-1

Abstract

"Der Gender Pay Gap, also die durchschnittliche Verdienstlücke zwischen Frauen und Männern, lag zuletzt bei 16 Prozent. Wie dieser Bericht auf Basis von Daten des Sozio-oekonomischen Panels (SOEP) anlässlich des diesjährigen Equal Pay Days zeigt, verbergen sich hinter diesem Durchschnittswert mitunter große Unterschiede nach Alters- und Bildungsgruppen. So steigt der Gender Pay Gap mit zunehmendem Alter in allen Bildungsgruppen deutlich an und ist bei älteren Beschäftigten mit Hochschulabschluss am größten. Das Altersmuster ist dabei in Westdeutschland deutlich stärker ausgeprägt als in Ostdeutschland. Will die Politik der hohen geschlechtsspezifischen Entgeltungleichheit entgegenwirken, sollte sie Anreize für eine gleichmäßigere Aufteilung der Erwerbs- und Sorgearbeit zwischen Frauen und Männern schaffen. Ansatzpunkte sind eine Reform des Ehegattensplittings und der steuerlichen Behandlung der Einkünfte aus Minijobs. Beides macht derzeit eine Teilzeit- oder geringfügige Beschäftigung vor allem für verheiratete Frauen zumindest kurzfristig finanziell attraktiv und verfestigt dadurch bestehende geschlechtsspezifische Ungleichheiten auf dem Arbeitsmarkt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Herzberg-Druker, Efrat (2025): Couples' division of paid work and rising income inequality: A study of 21 OECD countries. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 99. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2025.101084

Abstract

"Numerous scholars have explored the association between women's changing employment patterns and the changing income inequality in recent decades. While most studies indicate that increased women's employment reduces household inequality, a few suggest the opposite effect. This research investigated whether shifts in the division of paid work (i.e., changes in the working hours) among heterosexual couples, as compared to changes in women's work alone, contribute to changes in income inequality. It also examined whether the selection of couples into the different types of division of paid work based on their level of education is a mechanism underlying the growing inequality. Based on counterfactual analyses of data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS), encompassing 21 OECD countries, the findings demonstrate shifts in couples' division of paid work, particularly the increase in fulltime dual-earner households, are associated with rising income inequality in most countries studied. However, changes in educational attainment were not found to be the mechanism underlying the association between changes in couples' division of paid work and changes in income inequality." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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Hohendanner, Christian, Markus Janser & Florian Lehmer (2025): Strukturwandel am Arbeitsmarkt durch die ökologische Transformation - Folgen für Geschlechterverhältnisse auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. Expertise für den Vierten Gleichstellungsbericht der Bundesregierung. Berlin, 94 S.

Abstract

"Die vorliegende Expertise untersucht erstmals quantitativ die strukturellen Veränderungen des Arbeitsmarktes in Deutschland im Hinblick auf geschlechtsbezogene Aspekte, die im Zuge der ökologischen Transformation entstehen. Wir verwenden hierfür einen Tasks-basierten Ansatz zur Identifikation der betroffenen Akteur*innen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. Dazu werden der Greenness-of-Jobs Index (GOJI) (Janser 2019, 2024), das IAB-Berufepanel (Version 2012-2022, inkl. GOJI) sowie deskriptive Statistiken auf Basis des IAB-Betriebspanels herangezogen. Das IAB-Berufepanel wie die Auswertungen des IAB-Betriebspanels sind auf der Homepage des IAB öffentlich zugänglich und können für weitere Analysen genutzt werden. Zusätzlich werden Maßnahmen diskutiert, die helfen könnten, mögliche Ungleichheiten in der ökologischen Transformation abzufedern und zu überwinden. Ziel der Expertise ist es, den Sachverständigen für den Vierten Gleichstellungsbericht eine fundierte empirische Grundlage zu den Veränderungen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt und deren potenziellen Folgen für Geschlechterverhältnisse durch die ökologische Transformation zu liefern. Die Expertise zeigt auf, inwiefern Frauen und Männer gleichermaßen oder unterschiedlich von den Entwicklungen des Arbeitsmarktes profitieren bzw. betroffen sind. Es wird dargestellt, in welchen Branchen und Berufen sich Tätigkeitsfelder verändert haben und neue Beschäftigungsverhältnisse entstanden bzw. weggefallen sind – jeweils mit besonderem Fokus auf die Unterschiede zwischen Frauen und Männern. Vor dem Hintergrund aller zusammengetragenen Erkenntnisse wird abschließend diskutiert, inwiefern die bisherigen Ergebnisse darauf hindeuten, dass sich geschlechtsbezogene Unterschiede bzw. Ungleichheiten auf dem Arbeitsmarkt in der ökologischen Transformation eher angleichen oder weiter auseinanderentwickeln." (Textauszug, IAB-Doku)

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Hook, Jennifer L. & Meiying Li (2025): National Work-Family Policies and Gender Earnings Inequality in 26 OECD Countries, 1999 to 2019. In: Socius, Jg. 11, S. 1-21. DOI:10.1177/23780231251360042

Abstract

"The authors investigate whether work-family policies help incorporate women into the labor market, but exacerbate the gender earnings gap and motherhood penalty, especially for mothers and/or tertiary-educated women. The authors use repeated cross-sectional income data from the Luxembourg Income Study database (1999–2019) (n = 26 countries, 280 country-years, 2.9 million employees) combined with an original collection of indicators on work-family policies, labor market conditions, and gender norms. The authors find that only one work-family policy, long paid parental leave (longer than six months), is associated with a larger gender earnings gap for mothers and tertiary-educated women. The negative relationship between long paid leave and women’s earning percentile is not well explained by selection, full-time status, work hours, experience, occupation, or sector, suggesting discrimination mechanisms. These findings add to the growing evidence that long paid leave specifically, as opposed to work-family policies more generally, cleaves the labor market outcomes of women from men." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

Zitatform

Huebener, Mathias, Jonas Jessen, Daniel Kühnle & Michael Oberfichtner (2025): Parental Leave, Worker Substitutability, and Firms' Employment. In: The Economic Journal, Jg. 135, H. 669, S. 1467-1495., 2024-12-06. DOI:10.1093/ej/ueae114

Abstract

"Motherhood and parental leave are frequent causes of worker absences and employment interruptions, yet little is known about their effects on firms. Based on linked employer-employee data from Germany, we examine how parental leave absences affect small-and medium-sized firms. We show that they anticipate the absence with replacement hirings in the six months before childbirth. A 2007 parental leave reform extending leave absences reduces firm-level employment and total wages up to three years after childbirth, driven by firms with few internal substitutes for the absent mother. However, we do not find longer-term effects on firms’ employment, wage bill, or likelihood to shut down. The reform led to an increase in replacement hirings, but firms did not respond to longer expected absences of mothers by subsequently hiring fewer young women. Overall, our findings show that anticipated, extended parental leave does not have a lasting impact on firms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © Oxford University Press) ((en))

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Illing, Hannah & Benjamin Baisch (2025): Frauen sind schlechter über das Gehalt ihrer Kolleg*innen informiert als Männer. In: IAB-Forum H. 05.11.2025. DOI:10.48720/IAB.FOO.20251105.01

Abstract

"Seit 2017 existiert in Deutschland das sogenannte Entgelttransparenzgesetz, das Lohnunterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen mit gleichwertiger Arbeit in derselben Firma reduzieren soll. Das Gesetz hat die Lohnlücke bisher jedoch nicht verringert. Ein Problem: Frauen sind schlechter als Männer über die Gehälter ihrer Kolleg*innen informiert und tauschen sich zudem seltener mit diesen darüber aus." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Jochmann-Döll, Andrea (2025): Entgeltgleichheit gemeinsam herstellen: Notwendig und machbar! Handlungshinweise und Erfahrungen aus der Praxis eines Unternehmens. (Working paper Forschungsförderung / Hans Böckler Stiftung 378), Düsseldorf, 46 S.

Abstract

"Wie kann geprüft werden, ob gleiche oder gleichwertige Arbeit gleich bezahlt wird und die Entgeltgleichheit der Geschlechter verwirklicht ist? Diese Frage stellt sich in vielen Unternehmen, angestoßen durch den Wandel der Geschlechterverhältnisse, die Veränderung von Tätigkeiten im Zuge der digitalen Transformation und neue rechtliche Grundlagen der Entgeltgleichheit durch die Entgelttransparenzrichtlinie der EU. In diesem Papier wird am praktischen Beispiel eines Unternehmens gezeigt, wie das Instrumentarium eg-check.de hierfür eingesetzt wurde. Sein Ablauf, die angewendeten Methoden und die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse werden beschrieben, der Bezug zur Entgelttransparenzrichtlinie wird hergestellt." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)

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Kantova, Klara & Michaela Hasikova (2025): Do Pay Transparency Laws Reduce the Gender Wage Gap? Insights from a Meta-Analysis. (IEW working paper / Institut Ekonomických Studií (Prag) 2025/22), Praha, 37 S.

Abstract

"Pay transparency laws are a key policy response to persistent gender wage disparities, yet evidence on their effectiveness is mixed. This meta-analysis synthesizes 268 estimates from 12 studies. Across a broad suite of publication bias diagnostics, we find at most weak evidence of selective reporting, while most approaches indicate a small but significant positive effect beyond bias. The pooled mean effect is 0.012 log points, corresponding to an average 1.2% increase in women´s wages relative to men, consistent with a modest narrowing of the gap. Heterogeneity analysis using Bayesian and frequentist model averaging shows that policy design is pivotal. Public disclosure regimes produce larger reductions than internal access or job-ad disclosure, while evidence for pay-secrecy bans is imprecise. Specification choices also matter, with regional and employee controls attenuating effects and sector controls amplifying them. Overall, effective transparency depends on both robust policy design and careful empirical specification." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kałamucka, Agata, Anna Matysiak & Beata Osiewalska (2025): Working-time flexibility among European couples. In: Community, work & family, S. 1-23. DOI:10.1080/13668803.2025.2535735

Abstract

"This study examines patterns of working-time flexibility among European heterosexual couples, focusing on both employee – and employer-oriented flexibilities. Using 2019 EU LFS and multinomial logit models, we analyse how these flexibilities are distributed between partners, considering education and parenthood status. The findings highlight the critical role of working-time flexibility in shaping labor force participation and reveal stark differences across socioeconomic and family contexts. Among the tertiary-educated strata, there is a high prevalence of dual-earner couples in which both partners work with employee-oriented flexibility, which remains consistently high even when there are children at home. This pattern is, however, much more common in Western Europe than in Southern and Central Eastern Europe. In contrast, below tertiary-educated couples are less likely to have employee-oriented flexibility and more often form male breadwinner families, particularly as family size increases. Additionally, we demonstrate that below tertiary-educated fathers often have to rely on employer-oriented schedules, which highlight the challenges they may face in balancing work and family responsibilities due to unpredictable work hours. We found this pattern most common in Southern Europe. This study underscores the critical intersection of education, working-time flexibility, and parenthood in shaping labour force participation and perpetuating gender inequalities across socioeconomic strata." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Killewald, Alexandra & Nino José Cricco (2025): Can fertility decline help explain gender pay convergence? In: Social forces, Jg. 103, H. 4, S. 1329-1349. DOI:10.1093/sf/soae153

Abstract

"Prior scholarship demonstrates that motherhood wage penalties and fatherhood wage premiums contribute to the gender pay gap. These analyses typically take a cross-sectional perspective, asking to what extent gender inequalities in the association between parenthood and wages can explain gender pay inequality for a given cohort or at a given moment in time. By contrast, explorations of gender pay convergence over time have tended to start at the firm’s door, testing the explanatory power of changes in men’s and women’s human capital and job characteristics and neglecting the contributions of fertility change. We bring these two strands of research together, asking to what extent declines 1980–2018 in US employees’ number of children can explain gender pay convergence over the same period. Using a descriptive decomposition and data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we show that, in gross terms, fertility decline can explain almost one-quarter of gender pay convergence from 1980 to 2018. Even net of a host of controls for human capital and job characteristics, fertility decline explains 8 percent of the attenuation of the US gender pay gap 1980–2018—about half as much as changes in education and about a quarter as much as changes in full-time work experience and job tenure combined. Finally, we show that employees’ fertility decline was fastest in the 1980s and subsequently slowed; this, in conjunction with persistent gender differences in parenthood–wage associations, helps explain stalled progress toward gender pay parity." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kim, Andrew Taeho & ChangHwan Kim (2025): Double disadvantage of Black, Hispanic, and Asian American women in earnings, revisited. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 96. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2025.101018

Abstract

"Prior literature suggests that women of color experience unique disadvantages as women and as racial minorities. However, empirical studies that hypothesize an additional disadvantage for women of color in personal earnings have not found supporting evidence. This study explores the family contexts and the local labor market conditions by which double disadvantage is mitigated. Using the 2015–2019 American Community Survey, we uncover a paradoxical pattern that the stronger the power of race in accounting for earnings inequality among men in a local labor market, the weaker double disadvantage married women of color experience. The relative performances of women of color compared to White women in terms of personal earnings, annual work hours, and hourly earnings are positively associated with the strength of race in explaining earnings inequality among men across local labor markets. No such paradoxical patterns are persistently evident among cohabiting or single women. The implications of these findings are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.) ((en))

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Konietzka, Dirk & Sebastian Wen (2025): Can women bridge the gender class gap by choosing a gender-atypical field of study? A study based the on the German micro-census 1996–2016. In: Journal of education and work, Jg. 37, H. 7/8, S. 550-567. DOI:10.1080/13639080.2025.2487421

Abstract

"The persistence of gender-stereotyped subject choices is considered as a detrimental factor for women’s labor market opportunities. Against this background, the paperfocusses on the labor market chances of women who graduated from a male-dominated field of study in higher education. We use a position in the upper service class as a criterion for successful job placement. Analyses of German micro-census data are conducted across labor market subsectors and over the period 1996–2016. Results show that class positions of women who graduated in male-dominated fields of study vary substantially by labor market segment. They are less likely than men to be employed in the upper service class specifically in large private sector firms, but at the same time more likely to be employed in the public sector. Over time, the private sector gender class gap has narrowed, but not disappeared." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

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Kostøl, Fredrik B. & Elin Svarstad (2025): From bargaining to balance: How unions shape gender wage outcomes. In: Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Jg. 236. DOI:10.1016/j.jebo.2025.107130

Abstract

"Women continue to earn less than men in OECD countries. Extensive research has explored various factors contributing to the gender wage gap. However, fewer studies have examined the impact of trade unions, despite their significant role in promoting equality. In this study, we exploit exogenous variation in tax scheme incentives for union members to identify the effect of trade unions on the gender wage gap in Norwegian private sector establishments. Using administrative register data on full-time private-sector workers in the period 2000–2014, we find that increases in union density reduce wage differences between women and men within establishments. A ten-percentage point increase in the workplace union density is estimated to reduce the gender wage gap by approximately 2.7 percentage points." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.) ((en))

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Kuo, Mei-Yu & Vincent J. Roscigno (2025): Labor force attachment, college majors, and the gender earnings gap. In: Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Jg. 100. DOI:10.1016/j.rssm.2025.101107

Abstract

"Workplace stratification research has been clear regarding ongoing earnings inequalities by gender and how both family dynamics and long-term employment may be playing a role. Gender gaps in both earnings and labor force integration, however, may also be partially shaped by divergences in post-secondary educational backgrounds. In this article, we draw on NLSY97 data and interrogate gender wage inequalities among college educated individuals in the U.S., how they may be tied to distinct fields of study, and the implications especially for labor force attachment and detachment over time. Results show clear divergences and significant contemporary baccalaureate underrepresentation of women in STEM fields—i.e., fields where eventual labor force attachment and wages tend to be highest. Although well-represented among non-STEM degree holders, women’s wage returns to these degrees are depressed relative to their male counterparts; a pattern partly tied to women’s concentration in “applied” fields of study that tend to lead to care-centered forms of employment. Further analyses show how observable earnings gaps across majors are partly a consequence of differences in labor force attachment across time; and that earnings benefits associated with labor force attachment are nearly double for men than for women. We conclude by discussing the stratified gender pipeline in educational pathways, its implications for employment integration and, consequently, ongoing earnings gaps." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku, © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.) ((en))

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Laschinski, Miriam & Ruth Abramowski (2025): Lebenslauffolgen der professionellen Erbringung von Care-Arbeit. (DIFIS-Impuls 2025,9), Duisburg ; Bremen, 4 S.

Abstract

"Der Arbeitskräftemangel in den sozialen Dienstleistungen ist inzwischen zu einem Dauerbrenner geworden. Dass dies nicht nur ein Resultat des demografischen Wandels ist, sondern auch von schlechter Personalplanung, einer Ökonomisierung des Care-Sektors sowie schlechten Arbeitsbedingungen in Pflegeheimen, Kranken­­häusern und Kitas begleitet wird, ist zunehmend Konsens in Öffentlichkeit und Forschung. Insbesondere kurz- und langfristige Folgen für die professionell Beschäftigten, die diese Dienstleistungen erbringen, rücken zunehmend in den Fokus. So haben die hohen Arbeitsbelastungen negative Auswirkungen auf die unmittelbare, aber auch auf die langfristige physische wie psychische Gesundheit. Hinzu kommen geringe Aufstiegs- und Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten, häufige Erwerbsunterbrechungen sowie komplette Berufsaus­stiege, sodass Karriereverläufe beeinträchtigt werden und die finanzielle Absicherung kurz- wie langfristig bedroht ist. Auf individueller Ebene können Stress sowie Konflikte mit dem eigenen Berufsethos – gute Pflege oder Betreuung erbringen zu wollen, aber aus Zeitgründen nicht leisten zu können – entstehen, sodass negative Konsequenzen für die Qualität der Dienstleistungserbringung nicht selten sind. Auf gesamtgesellschaftlicher Ebene kann dies zu einer unbefriedigten Nachfrage nach professioneller und qualitativ hochwertiger Care-Arbeit führen. Verbesserungs- und Gestaltungsmöglichkeiten ergeben sich durch Tarifverträge und Arbeitsbedingungen, die der Sozialstaat und die Sozialpartner vorantreiben können. Dieser Impuls ist durch die Vorträge und Diskussionen des Workshops „Lebenslauffolgen der professionellen Erbringung von Care-Arbeit“ im Februar 2025 inspiriert worden. Auf diesem Wege möchten sich die Organisatorinnen der Veranstaltung, die auch gleichzeitig die Autorinnen dieses DIFIS-Impulses sind, noch einmal ganz herzlich bei allen Workshop-Beteiligten bedanken! Es war eine tolle und bereichernde Veranstaltung, die durch jeden einzelnen Vortrag und Diskussionsbeitrag bereichert wurde. Darüber hinaus geht ein großer Dank an Franca Riegert und Greta Becker für die sehr gute Unterstützung sowohl bei der Vorbereitung als auch bei der Durchführung des Workshops! Dieser Impuls fasst zentrale Erkenntnisse der Diskussion zusammen, kann aber natürlich nicht die Tiefe und Breite der gesamten Veranstaltung abbilden." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)