Brain Drain? Brain Gain? Folgen der internationalen Wanderung
Arbeitskräftemobilität über Staatsgrenzen hinweg ist ein mit Hoffnungen und Ängsten verbundenes Phänomen. In der politischen Debatte konkurrieren auf Begrenzung zielende Reaktionsmuster mit Vorschlägen, die auf eine aktive Steuerung der Migration in den heimischen Arbeitsmarkt zielen.
Was bedeutet internationale Wanderung für die Herkunfts-, was für die Aufnahmeländer? Insbesondere die Migration gut ausgebildeter Menschen wurde oft unter dem Schlagwort des "Brain Drain" als schädlich für Wohlfahrt und Entwicklung ihrer Heimatländer betrachtet. Die Forschung zeichnet inzwischen jedoch ein differenzierteres Bild. Dieses Themendossier stellt eine Auswahl der theoretischen und empirischen Literatur vor.
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Literaturhinweis
The case of state funded higher education scholarship plans and interstate brain drain (2013)
Hawley, Zackary B.; Rork, Jonathan C.;Zitatform
Hawley, Zackary B. & Jonathan C. Rork (2013): The case of state funded higher education scholarship plans and interstate brain drain. In: Regional science and urban economics, Jg. 43, H. 2, S. 242-249. DOI:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2012.07.003
Abstract
"This paper studies the impact of state funded higher education scholarship plans on interstate migration patterns of college educated individuals between 1980 and 2009. We find that these plans increase the in-state enrollment rate, but have no positive impact on the subsequent number of graduates. While aggregate migration trends remain unaffected as a result of these plans, we find the out-migration rate of young college educated individuals decreases 3 to 5 years after the adoption of a plan, but this effect is countered by an increase in the out-migration of older college educated adults in later years." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Return migration of foreign students and non-resident tuition fees (2013)
Lange, Thomas;Zitatform
Lange, Thomas (2013): Return migration of foreign students and non-resident tuition fees. In: Journal of population economics, Jg. 26, H. 2, S. 703-718. DOI:10.1007/s00148-012-0436-6
Abstract
"This paper challenges the notion that optimal non-resident tuition fees should necessarily be raised if the return rate of foreign students after graduation increases. The analysis of a host country's optimal pricing behavior therefore incorporates a specific student migration model. Students usually are aware of the fact that they might return to their home countries after being educated abroad, even if they initially intended to stay on in the host country. With rational expectations, a change in students' perceptions of the return probability after graduation can affect their first-round decisions whether to study abroad. The optimal adjustment of non-resident tuition fees in the host country has to take this behavioral response into account. Under certain conditions, the behavioral effect is dominant, and a decline in stay rates of students actually requires tuition fee cuts." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Institutionalized inequality and brain drain: an empirical study of the effects of women's rights on the gender gap in high-skilled migration (2013)
Naghsh Nejad, Maryam;Zitatform
Naghsh Nejad, Maryam (2013): Institutionalized inequality and brain drain. An empirical study of the effects of women's rights on the gender gap in high-skilled migration. (IZA discussion paper 7864), Bonn, 38 S.
Abstract
"This paper investigates the effects of institutionalized gender inequality, proxied by a women's rights index, on the female high-skilled migration rates relative to that of male (the female brain drain ratio). By developing a model of migration choice I find non-linear effects of gender inequality on the female brain drain ratio as a result of effects of gender inequality on both costs and benefits of migration. At low levels of women's rights, increases in the index lead to increases in the female brain drain ratio. This is consistent with, at low levels of women's rights, prohibitively high costs of migration for females. Once a certain level of protections has been afforded to them, the costs to migration are low enough that many women then decide to leave the oppressive society and migrate where the benefits associated with their human capital are higher. However, as women's rights continue to strengthen, those benefits to migration then tend to decrease. The effect on female brain drain then turns negative. Using a panel of up to 195 countries I find evidence consistent with this model which is robust to instrumental variable approach. A one-point increase in the above average level of this index is associated with an average of about a 25-percentage point decrease in the female brain drain ratio." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Do high-skill immigrants raise productivity?: evidence from Israeli manufacturing firms, 1990-1999 (2013)
Paserman, M. Daniele;Zitatform
Paserman, M. Daniele (2013): Do high-skill immigrants raise productivity? Evidence from Israeli manufacturing firms, 1990-1999. In: IZA journal of migration, Jg. 2, S. 1-31. DOI:10.1186/2193-9039-2-6
Abstract
"This paper exploits the episode provided by the mass migration from the former Soviet Union to Israel in the 1990s to study the effect high skill immigration on productivity. Using a unique data set on manufacturing firms, I investigate directly whether firms and industries with a higher concentration of immigrants experienced increases in productivity. The analysis finds no correlation between immigrant concentration and productivity at the firm level in cross-sectional and pooled regressions. First-differences estimates reveal, if anything, a negative correlation between the change in output per worker and the change in the immigrant share. The immigrant share was strongly negatively correlated with productivity in low-tech industries. In high-technology industries, the results point to a positive relationship, hinting at complementarities between technology and the skilled immigrant workforce." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Can the augmented Solow model with migration explain the Italian internal brain drain? (2013)
Piras, Romano;Zitatform
Piras, Romano (2013): Can the augmented Solow model with migration explain the Italian internal brain drain? In: Labour, Jg. 27, H. 2, S. 140-163. DOI:10.1111/labr.12003
Abstract
"We extend the Dolado et al. (1994) model to both inflows and outflows of migrants and assume that they have a human capital endowment that contributes to increase/decrease the stock of human capital in the receiving/sending economy. We derive the conditional convergence equation in which the impact of migration flows on the growth rate is disentangled in a pure quantity effect and in a quality or composition effect of immigration and emigration rates that accounts for the relative human capital endowment of migrants with respect to resident population. Next, we test the model with Italian regional data for the 1970-2005 time period. We find that the model provides a good explanation of the Italian experience. The quantity effect is negative for the immigration rate and positive for the emigration rate, whereas the composition effect is positive for immigration and negative for emigration. Finally, we separate the centre-north from the south and find that the composition effect of emigration is stronger for the latter. We interpret these results as a clear evidence of a brain drain from the Mezzogiorno to the centre-northern regions." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Entrepreneurship, transnationalism, and development (2013)
Portes, Alejandro; Yiu, Jessica;Zitatform
Portes, Alejandro & Jessica Yiu (2013): Entrepreneurship, transnationalism, and development. In: Migration studies, Jg. 1, H. 1, S. 75-95. DOI:10.1093/migration/mns036
Abstract
"This article reviews the debate on economic and social consequences of immigrant entrepreneurship as well as theories advanced to explain different levels of self-employment among immigrant and ethnic minorities. We examine the impact of professional and entrepreneurial migration on sending countries from the viewpoint of traditional theories of the brain drain as well as from that of the more recent transnational perspective. Finally, we present the latest data on the effects of self-employment on income levels for various immigrant and ethnic groups. Results confirm the conclusion of a consistently positive net effect, both for annual incomes and hourly earnings. Implications of these results for theories of immigrant adaptation and policies implemented by sending and receiving countries are discussed." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Does student mobility during higher education pay?: evidence from 16 European countries (2013)
Zitatform
Rodrigues, Margarida (2013): Does student mobility during higher education pay? Evidence from 16 European countries. (EUR. Scientific and Technical Research Reports 26089), Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 53 S. DOI:10.2788/95642
Abstract
"We use data from 16 European countries to study the effects of student mobility during higher education on future mobility, on the transition from education to employment and on hourly earnings five years after graduation. We control for several important pre-determined individual characteristics and proxies for ability, motivation and initiative that are likely to be correlated with both the mobility decision and the outcomes. The findings point to a positive association between mobility and future mobility and earnings, while the transition to employment seems to be slightly delayed. While the effects on future mobility are found in all countries and fields of education, the ones related to the labour market are only found in few of them. We also discuss and present evidence on possible mechanisms." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
What do talents want?: work expectations in India, China, and Germany (2013)
Walk, Marlene; Schinnenburg, Heike; Handy, Femida;Zitatform
Walk, Marlene, Heike Schinnenburg & Femida Handy (2013): What do talents want? Work expectations in India, China, and Germany. In: Zeitschrift für Personalforschung, Jg. 27, H. 3, S. 251-278. DOI:10.1177/239700221302700305
Abstract
"Internationales Talentmanagement gewinnt zunehmend an Bedeutung, da Unternehmen in einem globalen Wettbewerb um qualifizierte Mitarbeiter stehen. Diese Studie befasst sich mit den Arbeitserwartungen von chinesischen (N=404), indischen (N=588) und deutschen (N=257) Studierenden -- der Gruppe, aus der Unternehmen ihre zukünftigen Arbeitskräfte rekrutieren. Die Einbeziehung spezifischer Arbeitserwartungen ist vor allem für qualifizierte Talente notwendig. Sollten ihre Arbeitserwartungen nicht erfüllt werden, ist eine Verringerung von Arbeitszufriedenheit, Commitment und Arbeitsleistung wahrscheinlich. Unter der Verwendung von faktoranalytischen Methoden wird in diesem Artikel ein Erhebungsinstrument entwickelt, welches studentische Arbeitserwartungen reliabel misst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Studierende aus allen Ländern mehr Gemeinsamkeiten aufweisen, als kulturelle Unterschiede vermuten lassen. Dennoch bieten die festgestellten Besonderheiten wichtige Einblicke für internationales Talentmanagement und fordern gezielte Rekrutierungs- und Bindungsstrategien." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
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Literaturhinweis
Dynamics of educational differences in emigration from Estonia to the old EU member states (2012)
Zitatform
Anniste, Kristi, Tiit Tammaru, Enel Pungas & Tiiu Paas (2012): Dynamics of educational differences in emigration from Estonia to the old EU member states. (Norface migration discussion paper 2012-17), London, 24 S.
Abstract
"The study analyzes the changes in emigration from Estonia in order to shed more light on East-West migration, contributing to the main debate on 'brain drain' by focusing on educational differences in emigration. We use anonymous individual level data for all emigrants from the register-based Estonian Emigration Database compiled by Statistics Estonia for the period 2000 - 2008. The analysis shows that there has been no significant brain drain from Estonia as the new EU member state during this period. Moreover, we find evidence of a spreading of the emigration norm into a wider range of population groups, including the less educated, since Estonia joined the European Union in 2004." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Selektive Arbeitskräftemobilität in Deutschland: Beschäftigungschancen sind wichtiger als der Lohn (2012)
Zitatform
Arntz, Melanie, Terry Gregory & Florian Lehmer (2012): Selektive Arbeitskräftemobilität in Deutschland: Beschäftigungschancen sind wichtiger als der Lohn. (IAB-Kurzbericht 13/2012), Nürnberg, 8 S.
Abstract
"Die wirtschaftliche Prosperität von Regionen hängt unter anderem davon ab, ob sie ein attraktiver Standort für (Hoch-)Qualifizierte sind. Für die Gestaltung politischer Maßnahmen, die Brain-Drain-Phänomenen entgegenwirken sollen, ist es wichtig zu wissen, was die Wanderung von Arbeitskräften bestimmt. In diesem Beitrag wird deshalb untersucht, wie sich regionale Unterschiede in der Lohn- und Beschäftigungsverteilung auf die Bildungsstruktur in den Arbeitskräftebewegungen auswirken." (Autorenreferat, IAB-Doku)
Beteiligte aus dem IAB
Lehmer, Florian;Weiterführende Informationen
- Einkommensunterschiede zwischen West- und Ostdeutschland
- Migration und Humankapitaltransfer: Bilanz zwischen Ost- und Westdeutschland
- Verteilung von Beschäftigungschancen und Löhnen in 27 deutschen Arbeitsmarktregionen
- Variationskoeffizient der Löhne und der Arbeitslosenquote für 27 Arbeitsmarktregionen in Deutschland, 1995-2004
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Literaturhinweis
Competing for talent: Global mobility, immigration and the City of London's labour market (2012)
Beaverstock, Jonathan V.; Hall, Sarah;Zitatform
Beaverstock, Jonathan V. & Sarah Hall (2012): Competing for talent: Global mobility, immigration and the City of London's labour market. In: Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, Jg. 5, H. 2, S. 271-288.
Abstract
"The City of London's competitiveness is founded on its global talent pool and ability to attract and retain workers of all nationalities. Drawing on ONS Long-Term International Migration data and fieldwork-based studies of banking, professional services and business education, the argument of this paper is 2-fold: that the City's competitiveness is significantly dependent on the functioning of its global labour market, of which a key factor is the immigration of European Economic Area (EEA) and non-EEA talent, and that a central determinant of the City's position as a leading international financial centre based around a highly competitive global labour pool will be UK immigration policy in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007-2008 and ensuing recession." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Extending the case for a beneficial brain drain (2012)
Zitatform
Bertoli, Simone & Herbert Brücker (2012): Extending the case for a beneficial brain drain. (Norface migration discussion paper 2012-08), London, 12 S.
Abstract
"The recent literature about the so-called beneficial brain drain assumes that destination countries are characterized not only by higher wages than the source country, but also by a higher or at least not lower relative return to education. However, it is a well known stylized fact that the returns to education are higher in rich than in poor countries. Against this background, we assess whether the main prediction of this literature, namely the possibility of a beneficial brain gain, still holds under the reverse assumption. We show that there is a still a strong case for a beneficial brain drain, even if the returns to education in the source country exceed those in the destination country. Immigration policies that are biased against unskilled workers are not necessary for a beneficial brain drain to occur once one considers that agents face heterogeneous migration costs." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The propensity to return: Theory and evidence for the Italian brain drain (2012)
Biondo, A.E.; Torrisi, B.; Skonieczny, G.; Monteleone, S.;Zitatform
Biondo, A.E., S. Monteleone, G. Skonieczny & B. Torrisi (2012): The propensity to return: Theory and evidence for the Italian brain drain. In: Economics Letters, Jg. 115, H. 3, S. 359-362. DOI:10.1016/j.econlet.2011.12.046
Abstract
"Return migration is the positive counterpart of the brain drain. The effects of the brain drain in Italy could be negative: this paper shows that highly skilled migrants decide not to return to their native country." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Migration and educational aspirations: another channel of brain gain? (2012)
Böhme, Marcus;Zitatform
Böhme, Marcus (2012): Migration and educational aspirations. Another channel of brain gain? (Kieler Arbeitspapier 1811), Kiel, 34 S.
Abstract
"International migration not only enables individuals to earn higher wages but also exposes them to new environments. The norms and values experienced at the destination country could change the behavior of the migrant but also of family members left behind. In this paper we argue that a brain gain could take place due to a change in educational aspirations of caregivers in migrant households. Using unique survey data from Moldova, we find that international migration raises parental aspirations in households located at the lower end of the human capital distribution. The identification of these effects relies on GDP growth shocks in the destination countries and migration networks. We conclude that aspirations are a highly relevant determinant of intergenerational human capital transfer and that even temporary international migration can shift human capital formation to a higher steady state by inducing higher educational aspirations of caregivers." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
The south-north mobility of Italian college graduates: an empirical analysis (2012)
Zitatform
Capuano, Stella (2012): The south-north mobility of Italian college graduates. An empirical analysis. In: European Sociological Review, Jg. 28, H. 4, S. 538-549., 2011-02-14. DOI:10.1093/esr/jcr023
Abstract
"In this article, I address the issue of whether 'brain drain' is taking place from the South to the North of Italy, i.e. whether the most skilled individuals have a greater propensity to move away from the South. I find evidence that the best college graduates have a higher probability of choosing Northern or Central Italy as a place of residence. The above results raise concerns about the growth potential of the South of Italy, which is already less developed than the rest of the country. Moreover, I consider the impact of family background on mobility. According to my results, having high-level self-employed parents significantly deters mobility, whereas parental education has no significant effect. I suggest an interpretation of this outcome that links social class membership to the individual propensity to move, and I provide some additional evidence in support of this hypothesis." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Globalization, brain drain, and development (2012)
Docquier, Frédéric; Rapoport, Hillel;Zitatform
Docquier, Frédéric & Hillel Rapoport (2012): Globalization, brain drain, and development. In: Journal of Economic Literature, Jg. 50, H. 3, S. 681-730. DOI:10.1257/jel.50.3.681
Abstract
"This paper reviews four decades of economics research on the brain drain, with a focus on recent contributions and on development issues. We first assess the magnitude, intensity, and determinants of the brain drain, showing that brain drain (or high-skill) migration is becoming a dominant pattern of international migration and a major aspect of globalization. We then use a stylized growth model to analyze the various channels through which a brain drain affects the sending countries and review the evidence on these channels. The recent empirical literature shows that high-skill emigration need not deplete a country's human capital stock and can generate positive network externalities. Three case studies are also considered: the African medical brain drain, the exodus of European scientists to the United States, and the role of the Indian diaspora in the development of India's information technology sector. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the analysis for education, immigration, and international taxation policies in a global context." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Quantifying the impact of highly-skilled emigration on developing countries (2012)
Docquier, Frédéric; Rapoport, Hillel;Zitatform
Docquier, Frédéric & Hillel Rapoport (2012): Quantifying the impact of highly-skilled emigration on developing countries. In: T. Boeri, H. Brücker, F. Docquier & H. Rapoport (Hrsg.) (2012): Brain drain and brain gain : the global competition to attract high-skilled migrants, S. 209-296.
Abstract
"Part II first provides (in Chapter 8) a quantitative assessment of the evolution and spatial distribution of the brain drain using updated data an emigration rates to the OECD by educational attainment. We expand the coverage of the database by introducing non-OECD host countries, study the age of entry structure of skilled emigration, and document the brain drain of scientists and of health-care professionals. In Chapter 9 we review the channels through which skilled emigration can affect the source countries. In particular, recent literature suggests that remittances, return migration, diaspora externalities, and network effects favouring international transactions and technology diffusion, as well as brain gain channels, may compensate the sending countries for their loss of human capital. We divide these channels into 'human capital', 'screening-selection', 'productivity', and 'institutional' channels, and also analyse the links between brain drain and remittances. The development of a simple partial equilibrium model allows us to combine these various channels in an integrated setting. Using numerical experiments and parameters taken from existing empirical studies, we then quantify the costs and gains of the brain drain for developing countries and analyse how these balance out." (Text excerpt, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Skill-biased technological change, unemployment and brain drain (2012)
Fadinger, Harald; Mayr, Karin;Zitatform
Fadinger, Harald & Karin Mayr (2012): Skill-biased technological change, unemployment and brain drain. (Norface migration discussion paper 2012-11), London, 46 S.
Abstract
"We develop a general equilibrium model of technological change and migration to examine the effects of a change in skill endowments on wages, employment rates and emigration rates of skilled and unskilled workers. We find that, depending on the elasticity of substitution between skilled and unskilled workers, an increase in the skill ratio can increase the expected wage of the skilled and decrease the brain drain. We provide empirical estimates and simulations to support our findings and show that effects are empirically relevant and potentially sizeable. Our findings fit the stylized facts on educational upgrading in developing countries during the 1980s and the subsequent decrease in the brain drain from those countries during the 1990s." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
International student mobility and high-skilled migration: the evidence (2012)
Felbermayr, Gabriel J.; Reczkowski, Isabella;Zitatform
Felbermayr, Gabriel J. & Isabella Reczkowski (2012): International student mobility and high-skilled migration. The evidence. (Ifo working paper 132), München, 48 S.
Abstract
"Using information from the UNCTAD, we construct a new balanced panel database of bilateral international student mobility for 150 origin countries, 23 host countries, and the years 1970-2000. We match these data with information on bilateral stocks of international migrants by educational attainment from census data, available for 1990 and 2000. We estimate a theory-founded gravity model by conditional fixed effects Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood to investigate the question: To what extent do countries that attract foreign students benefit from an increased stock of educated foreign workers? We find that, on average, an increase of students by 10 percent increases the stock of tertiary educated workers in host countries by about 0.9 percent. That average effect is, however, entirely driven by Anglo-Saxon countries. On average, our results imply a student retention rate of about 70 percent. These results suggest that the costs of educating foreign students are at least partly offset by increased availability of foreign talent." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))
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Literaturhinweis
Migration, international trade and capital formation: cause or effect? (2012)
Zitatform
Felbermayr, Gabriel, Volker Grossmann & Wilhelm Kohler (2012): Migration, international trade and capital formation. Cause or effect? (IZA discussion paper 6975), Bonn, 152 S.
Abstract
"In this paper, we provide an overview of the relationship between international migration and international trade as well as capital movements. After taking a brief historical perspective, we first investigate migration flows between two countries in a static, neoclassical context. We allow for a disaggregated view of migration that distinguishes between different types of labor and emphasizes the distinction between migration flows and pre-existing stocks. We focus on different welfare channels, on internal income distribution, international income convergence and on whether migration and trade are substitutes or complements. Complementarity/substitutability hinges on whether countries share the same technology, and the pivotal question is whether or not technology is convex. Generally, under substitutability between trade and migration and with convex technology, globalization tends to lead to convergence. Moreover, under non-convex technology trade and migration tend to be complements. Turning to dynamic models with capital adjustment costs and capital mobility, the same is true for the relationship between migration and capital flows. Nevertheless, in neoclassical models, we may observe emigration at the same time as capital accumulates during the transition to a steady state. Moreover, we can explain reverse migration. We also touch upon the effects of migration on the accumulation of both knowledge and human capital, by invoking endogenous growth theory. Finally, we review the empirical literature exploring the link between migration and trade. The discussion is based on the so called gravity model of trade, in which trade between pairs of countries is related to measures of their respective sizes, preferences, and trade costs. We revisit the identification of the overall trade-creating effect of migration and its break-down into the trade channel and the preference channel. We clarify the role of product differentiation for the size of estimated effects, discuss the role of immigrants' education and occupation, and emphasize direct and indirect networks and their trade-enhancing potential." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))